Manchester’s 1980s Cultural Revolution

First published 2024

In the 1980s, Manchester witnessed a profound transformation, a metamorphosis driven not by industry or politics, but by a vibrant cultural revolution centred around its flourishing music scene. At the heart of this movement was Factory Records, co-founded by Tony Wilson, a figure who became synonymous with the city’s cultural identity. This essay explores the thesis that the cultural revolution in Manchester, significantly influenced by Wilson and Factory Records, catalysed a broader economic renaissance. From the pulsating beats of iconic bands like Joy Division and New Order to the bustling nightlife that transformed desolate industrial spaces into hubs of creativity, Manchester’s cultural landscape underwent a dramatic change. This change, I argue, was not just a footnote in the city’s rich history but a pivotal force in reshaping its economic destiny. By examining the interplay between cultural innovation and economic development, this essay seeks to illuminate how Manchester’s transformation in the 1980s exemplifies the power of cultural movements in altering the socio-economic fabric of a city.

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Before delving into the transformative impact of Factory Records and the cultural revolution it spearheaded in the 1980s, it is crucial to understand the backdrop against which these changes occurred. Post-war Manchester was a city grappling with the decline of its traditional industries. The once-thriving textile mills and factories that had earned Manchester its reputation as a powerhouse of the Industrial Revolution were facing obsolescence, leading to economic stagnation and social challenges. This period of industrial decline set the stage for a city in dire need of reinvention. Enter Factory Records, established in the late 1970s by Tony Wilson, Alan Erasmus, and others. More than just a record label, Factory Records emerged as a cultural institution that transcended the conventional boundaries of music production. It became a symbol of innovation, creativity, and a defiant rejection of the status quo. The label’s unique approach to music and art, characterised by its eclectic style and commitment to artist freedom, laid the groundwork for a cultural renaissance in Manchester.

This period also saw the rise of iconic bands like Joy Division and New Order, whose music resonated with the disaffected youth and captured the ethos of a city in transition. Their sound was not just a departure from mainstream music; it was a soundtrack to Manchester’s transformation. Moreover, the cultural revolution was not limited to music. It encompassed a broader movement involving art, fashion, and nightlife. The Hacienda nightclub, also opened by Factory Records, became a cultural landmark, epitomising the synergy between Manchester’s music scene and its emerging club culture. This fusion of music, art, and social spaces played a pivotal role in redefining Manchester’s identity.

The cultural revolution in Manchester during the 1980s signified a seminal shift in the city’s music and broader cultural landscape. Factory Records distinguished itself with a unique approach to music production and artist promotion, one that was profoundly artist-centric. This ethos of granting musicians creative freedom stood in stark contrast to the commercial pressures typical of the music industry. Such an approach not only attracted a diverse array of talent but also encouraged innovative and experimental music, fostering a distinctive sound that became synonymous with Manchester.

Factory Records’ influence extended beyond mere sound production. It was renowned for its distinctive visual style, largely thanks to designer Peter Saville, whose work on album covers became iconic. This emphasis on aesthetics contributed significantly to a strong brand identity that influenced not just music but also fashion and design. Moreover, the label’s unconventional business model, characterised by informal, sometimes non-existent contracts, fostered a sense of community and collaboration. This was crucial in cultivating the cultural movement that came to define Manchester in this era.

Central to the Factory Records narrative were bands like Joy Division and New Order. Joy Division, with their dark, introspective sound, captured the essence of a generation grappling with societal changes and became the voice of post-industrial Manchester. Their global resonance put Manchester on the world’s cultural map. Following the tragic demise of Joy Division’s lead singer, Ian Curtis, the remaining members formed New Order. Pioneering a synthesis of post-punk and electronic dance music, New Order influenced not just the music scene but also the flourishing club culture in Manchester and beyond. Both bands, through their music and deep connection to Manchester, became symbols of the city’s cultural and social transformation, embodying the spirit of innovation that Factory Records championed.

Beyond music, Factory Records played a pivotal role in developing Manchester’s nightlife, most notably through The Hacienda nightclub. The Hacienda wasn’t just a music venue; it was a cultural hub that embodied the fusion of music, art, and social expression. This vibrant cultural scene also acted as a catalyst for other creative ventures in the city. The success of Factory Records and its bands inspired a wave of creative ventures, from independent record labels to fashion designers and visual artists, who found a flourishing environment for experimentation and expression in Manchester.

In essence, the cultural revolution led by Factory Records was a multifaceted movement that transcended music. It was about challenging conventions and inspiring a city to reimagine its identity. This period witnessed Manchester’s transformation from a post-industrial city into a cultural hub, a process in which Factory Records and its associated acts played an indispensable role. The label and its bands created a sense of community and identity among Manchester’s youth, providing a platform for self-expression and an alternative to the mainstream, resonating deeply with the city’s working-class roots and industrial heritage. This era also saw the emergence and growth of various subcultures, offering a space for alternative lifestyles and expressions that challenged traditional norms and promoted a more inclusive, diverse social environment. Additionally, this movement served as a platform for creative expression across multiple domains including music, art, fashion, and media, encouraging a generation to develop their talents and contributing to a more vibrant and dynamic societal fabric.

Economically, the rise of venues like The Hacienda significantly revitalised Manchester’s nightlife, positively impacting the local economy through entertainment, hospitality, and tourism. This cultural cachet made Manchester an appealing location for investment, attracting new businesses, especially in the creative and media sectors, and contributing to economic diversification. The cultural boom also led to job creation in various sectors, including music, entertainment, retail, hospitality, and urban development, further invigorating the city’s economy.

On an urban level, the cultural revolution played a key role in the regeneration of Manchester’s spaces, particularly in areas like the Northern Quarter. These former industrial zones were transformed into vibrant hubs of cultural activity, turning neglected neighbourhoods into thriving communities. The city also became a magnet for tourists attracted to its music and cultural scene, positively impacting local businesses and stimulating further urban development. The success of Factory Records and the broader cultural ecosystem encouraged the development of cultural infrastructure, such as art galleries, studios, and independent venues, enriching Manchester’s urban landscape. Manchester’s approach to urban regeneration, propelled by its cultural revolution, had a significant impact on urban policy and planning. Recognizing the importance of cultural capital, city planners began incorporating cultural elements into their urban development strategies.

Beyond its local impact, Manchester’s cultural revolution had broader implications. The city’s experience became a model for other cities grappling with industrial decline, showcasing how cultural initiatives can drive social and economic regeneration. Internationally, Manchester gained recognition as a cultural centre, influencing music, fashion, and art globally. This not only helped to rebrand the city from an industrial hub to a creative and cultural epicentre but also established Manchester as a global cultural icon.

The cultural revolution in Manchester during the 1980s, led by Factory Records and other key players, was more than a fleeting artistic movement; it was a catalyst for profound and lasting change. This essay has explored how this revolution reshaped Manchester’s economic landscape, redefined its identity, and positioned the city prominently on the global stage. Reflecting on the broader implications, the Manchester experience underscores the potential of cultural movements in driving economic change. It highlights how culture can be an engine for urban regeneration, economic diversification, and community revitalisation. This case study serves as a powerful reminder that investing in culture is not merely about nurturing arts and heritage; it is about fostering economic growth, social cohesion, and urban development.

In conclusion, the cultural revolution in Manchester, with Factory Records at its forefront, was a defining moment in the city’s history. It transformed Manchester economically, socially, and culturally, leaving a legacy that continues to inspire cities and regions globally. This story of reinvention and resilience exemplifies the enduring power of culture as a catalyst for change, encouraging other cities to embrace their cultural assets as vital tools for economic and social revitalisation.

Links

https://doi.org/10.1080/13619462.2017.1306214

https://www.factorymanchester.com/history/

https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife-news/gallery/pictures-inside-hacienda-club-manchesters-25441809

https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m001dsm0/the-hacienda-the-club-that-shook-britain

https://www.radiox.co.uk/features/which-artists-played-at-the-hacienda-in-manchester/

https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/apr/19/1980s-cultural-history

https://www.prideofmanchester.com/music/1980s.htm

https://www.ft.com/content/6d273ac6-66c8-11df-aeb1-00144feab49a

Virginia Henderson’s Nursing Need Theory

First published 2024

Virginia Henderson, a prominent figure in the nursing world, introduced the Nursing Need Theory, which has become an essential part of contemporary nursing practice. Her theory, which is a blend of educational, practical, and research elements, focuses on the pivotal role of nurses in augmenting the patient’s capabilities towards health and recovery. This theory was significantly shaped by Henderson’s experiences during World War I and her academic and professional work, including her revision of a nursing textbook and the insights she gained from nursing theorists like Florence Nightingale and Effie Taylor. Henderson’s theory emphasises the importance of patient autonomy and the collaborative relationship between the nurse and the patient.

The origins of Henderson’s model are deeply rooted in her desire to elevate the nursing profession, particularly during the challenging times of World War I. She sought to identify the essential needs of patients to facilitate their recovery process. Her background in teaching, research, and practical nursing profoundly influenced her approach to developing this theory.

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The Nursing Need Theory introduces a unique focus in nursing, defining patients as individuals who require autonomy in personal care and nurses as professionals providing necessary assistance. Henderson categorised patient needs into four groups: biological or physiological, moral or spiritual, psychological, and social. In this model, nurses play an essential role in helping patients recognise and understand these needs to ensure the provision of high-quality care.

In terms of content, Henderson’s theory is characterised by well-defined concepts, notably the 14 components that outline the patient’s needs and the corresponding role of the nurse. These components encompass a wide range of patient care aspects, from meeting physiological needs to providing emotional and spiritual support. The expectation from nurses is not limited to just offering care; they are also responsible for educating patients to promote their well-being at all times.

The comprehensiveness of Henderson’s model lies in its ability to address the interplay between health, the individual, the environment, and nursing. This model reflects various categories of nursing knowledge and emphasises the importance of a systematic and personalised approach to patient care. The logical congruence of the model is evident in its integration of different worldviews within the nursing framework, ensuring a holistic approach to patient care.

Henderson’s definition of nursing in this theory has significantly influenced nursing practices around the world and contributed to the development of other theories, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The practical application of this model remains robust and relevant, guiding nursing assessments and the development of care plans tailored to patients’ and their families’ needs.

The model has made substantial contributions to personalising care and elucidating the roles of both patients and nurses. It serves as a guide in various clinical situations, enhancing the quality of care and communication in medical settings. In modern nursing practice, Henderson’s model is frequently applied, particularly in areas like palliative care and in the care of older adults, helping to achieve patient independence and maintaining their physical and mental integrity.

In contemporary nursing settings, the application of Henderson’s model is widely recognised for its importance in assisting patients and underlining the crucial role of nurses. For example, post-surgery patients and their families can benefit greatly from this model, as it emphasises educating them on the basics of a healthy lifestyle to prevent complications or recurrence. The attention to a patient’s needs as outlined in this model provides a clear and effective plan for disease control and prevention.

The Nursing Need Theory also highlights the importance of understanding the patient as an individual with unique needs and preferences. This understanding is crucial in providing care that is not only effective but also respectful of the patient’s dignity and autonomy. The model encourages nurses to view patients not just as recipients of care but as active participants in their health and recovery journey.

Another significant aspect of Henderson’s theory is its emphasis on the environment in which care is provided. The theory recognises that the environment, including the physical setting and the socio-cultural context, plays a crucial role in the patient’s health and well-being. This understanding leads to a more comprehensive approach to nursing care, where the environment is considered as important as the physical care provided.

In terms of its implications for nursing education, Henderson’s model serves as a foundational framework for teaching nursing students. It provides a clear and comprehensive understanding of what nursing entails and the vital role nurses play in healthcare. The model not only informs the clinical skills that nursing students need to acquire but also instills in them the values and attitudes necessary for compassionate and effective patient care.

The versatility of Henderson’s model is one of its most remarkable features. Its principles can be applied across various nursing specialties and settings, from acute care hospitals to community health centers. This versatility makes the model an invaluable tool for nurses, regardless of their specific area of practice. Henderson’s model, developed more than a century ago, therefore continues to be a credible and relevant source of information for modern nursing practice. Nurses are now more aware of the impact of their actions on human health and are continuously improving their skills to ensure that their assistance and recommendations are both accurate and effective. Her theory has fundamentally transformed the quality of nursing care.

In conclusion, Virginia Henderson’s Nursing Need Theory remains a fundamental part of nursing education and practice, guiding nurses in their role as caregivers and advocates for patient health and well-being. The theory’s emphasis on patient independence, holistic care, and the nurse’s multifaceted role continues to shape how nurses approach patient care, highlighting the importance of addressing the whole person, including their physical, psychological, social, and spiritual needs. As nursing continues to evolve, Henderson’s theory provides a timeless framework that supports the ongoing development and refinement of nursing practice.

Links

https://www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org/docs/23_ahtisham.pdf

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29943844/

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/scs.12568

https://handoutset.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Philosophies-and-Theories-for-Advanced-Nursing-Practice-Janie-B.-Butts-Karen-L.-Rich.pdf

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3419278

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31166459/

Wealth and Wellbeing: The American Ethos and its Psychological Implications

First published 2024

Wealth, with its diverse facets, has consistently captivated, inspired, and been the subject of rigorous analysis. Tracing back to ancient civilizations and progressing to contemporary societies, the amassing of material assets is frequently viewed as a marker of achievement, authority, and sway. Particularly in the context of American cultural values, the quest for financial success extends beyond just economic metrics and is closely associated with ideals of individual accomplishment, liberty, and the aspiration for an improved life quality. While the ambition to attain millionaire or billionaire status grips the societal consciousness, the psychological dimensions linked to wealth are multifaceted and nuanced. Moving past the allure of opulence and the comfort of financial stability, there exists a detailed realm of drives, anticipations, pleasures, and hurdles. When exploring the psychology of wealth, especially set against the backdrop of American societal norms, one encounters a comprehensive history, diverse personal narratives, and evolving societal dynamics that highlight the intricate bond between prosperity and the contours of the human mind.

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The allure of wealth, particularly in American culture, has historically captivated the masses. The notion of becoming a millionaire, a term rooted in French origin and introduced by Disraeli in 1826, didn’t gain traction in the United States until the late 19th century. An early mention of this term is traced back to the obituary of Pierre Lorillard I, the founder of a prominent tobacco empire, highlighting the sentiment that his success stemmed from offering a product that catered to the unique desires of the populace.

The trajectory of wealth accumulation in the United States is profound. In 1861, the country boasted only three millionaires, but by 1961 this number had surged to approximately 100,000. Such a significant number of the wealthy suggested the emergence of a distinct subculture within the American landscape. This proliferation naturally sparked curiosity about the shared psychological traits, if any, among the ultra-rich.

Welsh journalist Goronwy Rees, in his 1961 study titled “Multimillionaires: Six Studies in Wealth,” endeavoured to discern common traits among six multimillionaires. These included figures like J. Paul Getty and Aristotle Onassis. The most prominent shared characteristic Rees identified was a willingness to embrace enormous risk. Such individuals didn’t merely gamble, but they also possessed the tenacity to push forward, staking all their gains. In contrast, “The New Millionaires and How They Made Their Fortunes,” a book from the same period, pinpointed extreme self-confidence as the distinguishing trait of the super-rich. Intriguingly, factors often assumed to be pivotal in achieving immense wealth, such as background, familial wealth, or educational attainment, were found to be negligible. This underscores the idea that the apex of wealth often rests on individual endeavours rather than inherited advantage.

However, the narrative changes when examining the children born into opulence. By the late 1970s, psychological evaluations started to shed light on the “poor little rich kid” syndrome. Burton Wixen’s “Children of the Rich” painted a picture of a “golden ghetto” existing within the wealthy American culture. This subset of affluent youth, often characterised as narcissistic and emotionally detached, were seen to share similar behavioural patterns with their less-privileged counterparts. Substance abuse, run-ins with the law, and promiscuity were common themes. The root causes for such behaviours were widely speculated upon, with theories ranging from absentee parents to excessively high expectations.

The 1980s brought forth a new term to describe the psychological strain observed in the wealthy youth: “affluenza.” This affliction manifested in stages, from the initial realisation of their vast wealth to excessive consumption, culminating in a loss of identity and purpose. Such aimlessness was frequently intertwined with substance abuse and other reckless behaviours. An interesting observation was the lack of genuine career pursuits among this group, with many claiming titles such as “movie producers” without substantial accomplishments.

As the dynamics of wealth evolved, particularly with the rise of hedge funds in the mid-2000s, the gap between the ultra-wealthy and the merely wealthy expanded dramatically. Yet, research indicates that the accumulation of vast fortunes doesn’t necessarily equate to heightened happiness. Studies from the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, both from the mid-1990s and a decade prior, have consistently demonstrated that wealth has a minimal correlation with happiness. Genetic factors have been identified as the predominant determinant of one’s happiness quotient, rendering the size of one’s financial assets relatively inconsequential.

The relationship between affluence and psychological wellbeing offers a profound examination of societal norms, personal goals, and the foundational aspects of satisfaction. Historically, wealth has served as both a symbol of accomplishment and a reflection of the multifaceted nature of human ambition and realisation. This analysis highlights that the appeal of substantial financial assets is deeply rooted in the American cultural ethos. However, achieving such affluence brings with it a spectrum of psychological considerations that surpass simple financial standing. This dynamic poses challenges to conventional perceptions of success, prompting a reevaluation of the true definition of prosperity.

The diverse experiences of the affluent, ranging from self-made tycoons to those inheriting significant wealth, emphasise that wealth alone neither provides solutions to life’s adversities nor assures lasting contentment. Factors propelling individuals to financial accomplishments, such as willingness to take risks and robust self-assuredness, can also introduce personal dilemmas and broader societal issues. Additionally, emerging psychological patterns, like “affluenza,” indicate an urgent need for societies to reassess the standards by which genuine wellbeing is gauged.

In today’s swiftly changing global context, where disparities between the exceedingly wealthy and the general populace expand, and concepts of affluence transform, it is essential to perceive wealth not solely as a financial concept but also as a significant determinant of personal identity, societal interactions, and cultural ambitions. The sustained pursuit for a more profound comprehension of this association encourages academics, decision-makers, and the public to contemplate the core nature of wealth and its implications on human contentment and societal advancements. Progressing in this era marked by unparalleled prosperity and discrepancy, the psychology of wealth persists as a vital perspective to discern the nuances of human goals, triumphs, and the relentless endeavour for a meaningful existence.

In reflecting upon the psychological implications of wealth, it becomes evident that while the quest for financial success is deeply embedded in cultural aspirations, the attainment of such wealth brings with it a complex array of emotional and behavioural challenges. The pursuit of affluence, it seems, is less about the destination and more about the journey and the inherent traits that propel individuals forward.

Links

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2307/1389101

https://oa.mg/work/1521213944

The Detrimental Effects of Social Networks on Relationships

First published 2023

The evolution of technology and the digital realm has fundamentally transformed various facets of human existence, among which the domain of romantic relationships stands out prominently. With the advent of the internet, there was a paradigm shift in how individuals socialise, communicate, and connect, giving birth to a new age of virtual relationships. Over the past decade, especially, the reliance on technology has surged exponentially, with traditional methods of forming connections being replaced by their digital counterparts. Social networks, dating apps, and messengers have burgeoned into the primary mediums through which romantic entanglements are pursued, forging a new path for modern love stories. Burch (2020) underscores this transformation, noting that for the past 5-10 years, relationships across the globe have increasingly migrated to these digital platforms. As these platforms become integral to the daily lives of nearly 67.8% of the global population, as of 2021, there’s an imperative need to evaluate the implications of this shift. Do these platforms, with their sophisticated algorithms and vast user bases, enhance the quality of romantic relationships, or do they inadvertently introduce complexities that challenge the very essence of human connection?

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In recent years, the landscape of romantic relationships has experienced a significant shift due to the rise of social networks, dating apps, and messengers. According to Burch (2020), over the past 5-10 years, the majority of global relationships are no longer constructed in the traditional face-to-face realm. Instead, they’ve largely migrated to the digital domain, with about 67.8% of the global population actively engaging on social platforms in 2021. These platforms, equipped with matching tools, recommendation systems, and advanced algorithms, have become integral to our daily online activities, such as exchanging comments, posting notes, and socialising.

However, these advanced systems present a narrowed and highly rationalised scope for acquaintanceship. The algorithms make it straightforward for users to filter their preferences, ranging from the external traits to more formal criteria such as education, career trajectories, or place of residence. As these algorithms continue to evolve, there’s a looming possibility that the criteria for selecting a potential partner could be entirely handed over to the machines. For many, the convenience and safety offered by platforms like Pure or Tinder are undeniable. Users feel secure knowing that they won’t be contacted unless there’s mutual interest, as determined by the infamous “swipe right” mechanism. Yet, despite these advantages, multiple downsides emerge from relying on such platforms for romantic pursuits.

Firstly, the sheer volume of choices these platforms provide can paradoxically hinder rather than facilitate meaningful connection. A study by the University of Edinburgh suggested that an abundance of options leads to decreased satisfaction. Participants who had to choose from a larger pool of 24 candidates were not only less satisfied but were also more likely to change their selection the subsequent week, compared to those who chose from a pool of just six (Riley, 2019). The human mind, when overwhelmed with choices, tends to focus on superficial criteria like height, weight, and physical appearance, which are not reliable indicators of relationship compatibility. Prioritising these criteria can lead to transient relationships and significant disillusionment. This was further substantiated by a 2017 study from Harvard University, which found that those who prioritise physical attractiveness are often quick to abandon their current relationships in search of new ones.

Another pitfall of digital dating is the inadvertent idealisation of potential partners. In face-to-face interactions, nuances like voice, smell, gestures, and humour play a pivotal role in forming impressions. In stark contrast, online platforms offer limited information, which could be a brief bio or a favourite song. Such limited data impedes the formation of a well-rounded perception of the other person, leading users to fill in the gaps with optimistic assumptions, often attributing positive traits or qualities of close friends to the person they’re communicating with online. The inevitable real-life meeting then becomes a breeding ground for disappointment when these augmented expectations meet reality.

Furthermore, the veil of online anonymity paves the way for dishonesty. It’s not uncommon for users to tweak certain details about themselves to appear more appealing. Women might inaccurately report their weight, while men might exaggerate their height or other physical attributes. Such falsehoods, while potentially increasing initial interest, form a shaky foundation for building genuine, long-term relationships. If discrepancies between one’s online profile and real-life persona are noticed, it can jeopardise the trust and warmth of a budding relationship.

Adding to the list of adverse impacts, these platforms can be a significant source of emotional distress. As Moore (2022) highlights, continuous unsuccessful searches on platforms like Tinder and Bumble can lead to feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, and even depression. The impersonal nature of online interactions further exacerbates this, making genuine connection even more elusive. And while these platforms are heralded as convenient tools for those leading busy lives, like university students, they can also become a breeding ground for insincerity and malicious intent. Older men might pose with decades-old pictures, while others might push for intimate encounters prematurely, adding a layer of risk and discomfort for users.

As the digital age continues to reshape the landscape of human interaction, it becomes essential to critically appraise the profound influence of social networks and dating apps on society’s quest for genuine connections. On the surface, the convenience, extensive choices, and ease of communication these platforms offer might seem like significant advancements in the realm of romance. However, a deeper evaluation reveals potential pitfalls and challenges. With an abundance of options available through these platforms, there’s an increased tendency for individuals to approach romantic pursuits as transactional experiences, leading to feelings of dissatisfaction and a lack of commitment. The format of these platforms can result in the idealisation of potential partners, setting unrealistic expectations that are rarely met in real-life encounters.

Deceit and misrepresentation on these platforms threaten the foundation of trust, which is crucial for lasting relationships. Moreover, the emotional challenges these platforms can introduce, evidenced by the onset of issues like anxiety and depression, are concerning. The impersonal nature of virtual communication, combined with the occasional malicious intents of users, can make the online dating experience fraught with emotional pitfalls.

Additionally, the commodification of romance, where apps can sometimes become mere tools for fleeting physical encounters, further distances users from the essence of genuine, deep connections. In the vast narrative of human experience, forming and nurturing authentic relationships stand as central aspects. While dating apps and social networks offer a convenient and seemingly expansive avenue for finding potential partners, they are riddled with pitfalls that can adversely affect the very essence of romantic relationships. It’s essential for users to approach these platforms with a blend of optimism and caution, recognising that finding a meaningful connection requires more than just swiping right.

Links

https://www.insider.com/guides/health/sex-relationships/how-social-media-affects-relationships

https://www.mindbodygreen.com/articles/social-media-and-relationships

https://turbofuture.com/internet/How-SocialMedia-Relationships

The Impact of Gender Inequality on Japan’s Economic Development

First published 2023

Japan, a recognised global technological and economic leader, faces a concerning economic narrative steeped in gender disparities. These disparities not only underscore the underuse of the female workforce but also extend to market innovation, corporate governance, and societal evolution. By marginalising a significant portion of its skilled population, Japan is inadvertently limiting its potential for robust and diverse economic growth.

Historically, Japan’s trajectory reveals a pattern of diminished female labour participation, especially when benchmarked against its OECD counterparts. Notably, during the late 20th century, while countries like the U.S. and UK witnessed amplified female engagement in the workforce, Japan lagged behind. Although recent years have seen a moderate upturn in female participation, the impediments to a balanced gender representation remain entrenched.

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One prominent barrier is direct discrimination. Many Japanese companies, influenced by ingrained societal norms, have shown a proclivity to favour men for senior roles, operating under the misguided belief that women might prioritise familial commitments over professional duties. Consequently, Japan’s percentage of women in managerial roles pales in comparison to other developed nations. Furthermore, cultural norms which position women primarily as caregivers have led to indirect challenges, particularly in metropolitan areas like Tokyo. Here, working mothers often confront difficulties in accessing childcare, prompting some to leave their jobs.

This gender discrepancy has critical implications for Japan’s economic development. It results in a discernible loss of human capital, thereby impeding the optimal utilisation of the nation’s talent pool. This is manifested not only in workforce figures but also in missed chances for creativity, innovation, and holistic perspectives. Moreover, with Japan grappling with demographic challenges like plummeting birth rates and an aging populace, there’s an impending labour supply crisis. Research by the Recruit Works Institute indicates a potential shortage of 3.41 million workers by 2030, escalating to over 11 million by 2040. Amidst such a backdrop, integrating a larger segment of the female populace into the labour market could prove vital.

Furthermore, gender diversity in decision-making often results in a broad spectrum of products and services. Without adequate representation of women in influential roles, Japan risks sidelining innovations that cater to diverse segments of the population. Evidence also suggests that companies with varied leadership often surpass their homogeneous counterparts in performance. Thus, Japan’s glaring gender gap, particularly in senior corporate roles, could signify missed economic opportunities.

However, initiatives aimed at rectifying these disparities, such as ‘Womenomics’ championed by Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, have yielded only incremental results. More recently, Prime Minister Fumio Kishida has recognised the need to bolster Japan’s birth rate and announced ambitious targets to raise the proportion of female executives in Tokyo stock exchange-listed firms to 30% or more by 2030. Yet, Japan has set and missed similar goals in the past, largely due to pervasive gender norms rooted deeply in the societal fabric.

Historical influences like Confucianism have shaped Japan’s patriarchal hierarchies, positioning men as breadwinners and heads of families, while women are relegated to caregiving roles. These constructs are imbibed from a young age, with educational settings reinforcing gendered behavioural patterns. Such norms invariably affect workplace dynamics, leading to hiring practices and organisational behaviour that echo these traditional gender roles.

Furthermore, Japan’s workplace expectations, characterised by long hours and unwavering commitment to the company, make it difficult for women to ascend to leadership positions. Adding to this is the societal expectation that they shoulder a disproportionate share of domestic responsibilities. Despite offering generous paternity leave provisions, only a mere 14% of Japanese men availed of this benefit in 2021. The resultant unequal division of household labour often results in women either missing out on promotions, settling for lower-paying roles, or reconsidering their family planning decisions.

Past governmental measures aimed at rectifying gender imbalances, whether by introducing leadership quotas, expanding childcare provisions, or enhancing parental leave benefits, have often missed their mark. Recent undertakings have even reportedly exacerbated gender inequality and, in some instances, pushed women into poverty.

Drawing parallels with Singapore’s recent gender equality review could offer Japan insights. A comprehensive review encompassing all life stages and societal segments, combined with feedback from the younger generation, could pave the way for meaningful reforms. Research indicates a growing disillusionment among younger Japanese with traditional gender roles, prompting them to explore alternative lifestyles outside the traditional power structures.

In summary, gender inequality has left an indelible mark on Japan’s economic narrative. Addressing these disparities requires more than just policy modifications; it necessitates a paradigm shift in societal mindsets. Championing gender equality might just be the catalyst Japan needs to achieve unparalleled economic success.

Links

https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/06/28/japans-stubborn-gender-inequality-problem/

https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2019/03/gender-equality-in-japan-yamaguchi

https://www.oecd.org/japan/Gender2017-JPN-en.pdf

https://www.jef.or.jp/journal/pdf/171th_cover06.pdf

https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/ip_innovation_economics/gender_innovation_gap/gender-equality-japan.html

Chicana Artists and the Political Use of the Virgin of Guadalupe

First published 2023

The interplay between art and society has long exemplified the cultural, political, and emotional climate of any given era. It holds a mirror to prevailing sentiments, crystallising the ephemeral into concrete representations that can be discussed, dissected, and deeply felt. In the diverse and rich landscape of art movements, few are as closely intertwined with cultural identity and political advocacy as the Chicano art movement of the mid-20th century. At the centre of this movement is a sub-narrative of particular significance: the powerful incorporation of the figure of the Virgin of Guadalupe by Chicana artists. Their nuanced portrayals transcend mere religious imagery; they delve into socio-political commentary, feminist critique, and the very essence of Mexican American identity. To fully grasp the profundity of their artistic choices, it’s crucial to trace the historical journey of the Virgin of Guadalupe, her place within the Mexican and Mexican American consciousness, and how Chicana artists have reimagined her over the decades.

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The interplay between art and society has always acted as a pulsating heartbeat, capturing the cultural, political, and emotional nuances of its time. Whether it’s the haunting reflections of the Renaissance following the Black Death, the vibrant tales of heroism painted in the Romantic period, or the stark abstraction of modernism in a rapidly changing world, art has consistently been a testament to the spirit of the era. But within this vast mosaic of artistic expression, the Chicano art movement, blossoming in the turbulent era of the 1960s and ’70s, stands out. This movement, deeply rooted in the experiences of Mexican Americans, became a revolutionary voice against discrimination, inequality, and cultural erasure. Central to this powerful outcry is an artistic motif that repeatedly finds its way into murals, paintings, and prints: the iconic figure of the Virgin of Guadalupe. The way Chicana artists, such as Yolanda Lopez and Ester Hernández, wove the image of this revered figure into their work was not just an affirmation of cultural identity, but a bold political statement. Through their art, the Virgin was transformed from a distant religious symbol into a dynamic emblem of resistance, feminism, and the rich tapestry of Mexican American heritage. To explore the profound reimagining of the Virgin of Guadalupe by these artists is to embark on a journey that traverses faith, history, and the passionate call for justice and recognition.

Historically, the Virgin of Guadalupe has occupied a profound space within the Mexican and Mexican American consciousness, acting as a bridge between indigenous roots and contemporary struggles. Revered as the protector of marginalised individuals, her origin story is steeped in both mysticism and cultural resonance. As the dark-skinned patroness of Mexico, her miraculous appearance to Juan Diego, an Indigenous man, on the hill of Tepeyac in 1531, wasn’t just a religious event; it was a powerful affirmation of indigenous identity in the face of Spanish colonisation. Speaking Nahuatl, the predominant language of the indigenous Aztecs, she became an embodiment of cultural continuity amidst rapid change and disruption. Her symbolic presence transcended mere spiritual reverence, intertwining with the political fabric of the nation. During Mexico’s tumultuous fights for independence in the 19th century, the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe was brandished by insurgents like Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla as a rallying cry against Spanish dominion. The revered image found resonance once again during the battles of the Mexican civil war, where fighters, driven by visions of a free and sovereign Mexico, bore her emblem on their banners, seeing in her not just a religious figure, but a symbol of hope, resilience, and the indomitable spirit of the Mexican people.

In the context of the United States, the Virgin of Guadalupe was wielded as an emblematic figure during the 1960s strikes led by Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta against grape-growing companies. The use of her image by Chicano Movement activists was not merely symbolic; it projected their struggle for economic and racial justice as a spiritual endeavour, resonating deeply with national audiences.

As the decades progressed, Chicana artists began to explore and reinterpret the Virgin of Guadalupe from feminist and gendered perspectives. Yolanda Lopez, in her iconic 1978 piece, “Portrait of the Artist as the Virgin of Guadalupe,” reframed the Virgin’s image as a powerful, forward-moving mestiza woman, juxtaposing traditional representations with modern sensibilities. Similarly, Ester Hernández’s artwork positioned Guadalupe as a karate champion, a nod to the formidable women at the forefront of the civil rights movement.

The intersection of art, spirituality, and politics further evolved as Chicana artists began focusing on pressing issues such as immigration. Through art, they shed light on the stories and struggles of those journeying through the treacherous desert landscapes between Mexico and the U.S. Liliana Wilson’s 1987 artwork “El Color de la Esperanza” poignantly captures the essence of hope, resilience, and vulnerability of these migrants, with Guadalupe as their guardian.

In a more satirical take, Ester Hernández’s 2010 print deftly combined biting commentary with cultural symbolism. Fashioning a “Wanted” poster featuring the Virgin of Guadalupe, Hernández’s artwork is a sharp rebuke to the draconian immigration policies of the time. The poster, painted with the characteristic sepia tones of aged paper, ironically accuses the Virgin of “providing limitless aid and comfort” to migrants. Beyond just the textual message, the “Wanted” portrayal is rife with implications. By presenting Guadalupe, a figure revered by many in the Mexican community, as a “criminal,” Hernández throws into stark relief the absurdity of policies that criminalise acts of humanitarian aid. Hernández’s piece serves as a potent reminder of the juxtaposition between how society often perceives marginalised communities and their deep-rooted traditions and values that see humanity and compassion as paramount virtues.

Moreover, embracing the Virgin of Guadalupe’s identity as a hybrid figure, many Chicana artists and writers have sought to redefine the people of the borderlands. This dual identity, encompassing both the ancient Aztec goddess Tonantzin and the Virgin, symbolises a reclaiming of mixed-race identities, where religious symbols are reshaped to echo diverse experiences and values.

These reimagined portrayals and reinterpretations of the Virgin of Guadalupe by Chicana artists underscore a larger narrative of resistance, identity, and transformation. For these artists, and the communities they represent, Guadalupe is not just a religious figure but an embodiment of a new, mestizo sensibility—a bridge that reconciles differences and advocates for those marginalised by systemic injustices. Through their art, these Chicana artists ensure that the political, social, and cultural messages of the Virgin of Guadalupe resonate powerfully, echoing both historical significance and contemporary relevance.

Links

https://americanart.si.edu/exhibitions/chicano-graphics

https://academic.oup.com/nyu-press-scholarship-online/book/23591/chapter-abstract/184757217

The Chicano Art Movement, 1960’s – present

Social Prescribing in the NHS: Challenges, Impact, and Future Directions

First published 2023

Social prescribing has emerged as a pivotal element in NHS England’s long-term strategy, reflecting a commitment to more personalised care and the reduction of health disparities. This approach involves referring patients to link workers, who then connect them with community-based services to address their non-medical needs. This initiative, integral to the NHS’s objective, seeks to foster a more comprehensive understanding of patient care, transcending traditional medical interventions. The emphasis on holistic care within this framework is noteworthy, as it signifies a shift towards viewing patient health through a wider lens, encompassing not just physical ailments but also the social, emotional, and environmental factors that contribute to a person’s overall wellbeing. In this context, social prescribing stands not just as a service, but as a reflection of a broader paradigm shift in healthcare, where the focus is on treating the individual as a whole rather than just addressing isolated health issues.

In 2019, NHS England made a significant commitment to social prescribing, recognising its potential in transforming patient care. This commitment involved the funding of link workers for each of England’s 1300 Primary Care Networks, a move that underscored the NHS’s dedication to integrating social prescribing into mainstream healthcare. These link workers are tasked with connecting patients to community-based services, addressing a range of non-medical needs that significantly impact health and wellbeing. However, the journey of integrating social prescribing into the NHS has not been without its challenges. Research on the implementation and impact of social prescribing has been both limited and inconclusive, marked by methodological challenges. Many studies evaluating social prescribing have suffered from issues such as small participant numbers, weak design structures, lack of control groups, and short durations, which have all contributed to a lack of robust evidence supporting its efficacy. Despite these challenges, the NHS’s investment in social prescribing represents a forward-thinking approach to healthcare, aiming to address the wider determinants of health in a more comprehensive manner.

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In the NHS, the roles and responsibilities of social prescribers are integral to the broader vision of patient-centered care. General practice staff play a crucial role in this model by identifying patients who could benefit from social prescribing and referring them to link workers. These link workers, a vital cog in the system, are responsible for bridging the gap between clinical healthcare and community-based support services. They connect patients with various non-medical resources and services, which can range from social and community activities to practical assistance, addressing a diverse spectrum of patient needs that often fall outside the scope of traditional medical care.

However, one of the challenges faced in the realm of social prescribing within the NHS is the lack of a standardised approach for assessing social needs. Unlike some other healthcare models where structured and formalised assessments are the norm, the NHS encourages link workers to adopt a more holistic and individualised approach to assess patients. They are guided to ask open-ended questions, focusing on ‘what matters’ to the patient, rather than adhering to a rigid, standardised assessment protocol. This approach aims to capture a broader understanding of the patient’s life, their challenges, and their aspirations. Despite its patient-centred nature, this lack of standardisation in assessments can lead to challenges in tracking and systematically addressing the population-level social needs, thereby highlighting a key area for potential improvement in the practice of social prescribing.

Social prescribing serves as a significant intervention in addressing some of the key social determinants of health that profoundly affect patients’ lives. By focusing on areas such as housing, finances, and employment, social prescribing addresses the major drivers of referrals, going beyond the conventional scope of medical care. This approach acknowledges that health is influenced by a range of social, economic, and environmental factors, and seeks to provide support in these areas. For example, a patient struggling with financial instability or poor housing conditions may experience exacerbated health issues. Social prescribing intervenes by connecting such individuals to appropriate resources, thereby potentially alleviating stressors that contribute to poor health outcomes.

However, the complexity of social prescribing programmes presents significant challenges, particularly when it comes to evaluating their effectiveness through randomised control trials (RCTs). These challenges arise from the multifaceted and personalised nature of the interventions, which are tailored to individual needs and local contexts. This variability makes it difficult to apply the standardisation typically required in RCTs, hindering the ability to produce generalised conclusions about the effectiveness of social prescribing. Moreover, the human and community elements integral to social prescribing defy easy quantification, further complicating efforts to measure outcomes in a manner that satisfies the rigorous criteria of traditional clinical research. Therefore, while the potential benefits of social prescribing to patients are considerable, there remains a need for innovative research methodologies that can capture the true impact of these complex interventions.

Social prescribing significantly contributes to the holistic care of patients by addressing a broad spectrum of social and non-medical needs that are integral to overall health and wellbeing. This approach recognises that health is not solely determined by medical factors, but also by a range of social, environmental, and economic factors. By connecting patients with community resources and services, social prescribing endeavours to improve aspects of their lives that medical treatments alone cannot address. This could include facilitating access to social support groups, financial advice, or housing services, thereby catering to the multifaceted nature of individual health.

The diverse and personalised nature of social prescribing, however, underscores the need for a robust evaluation framework. Such a framework is essential to develop a common body of knowledge on the effectiveness and impact of social prescribing. The current landscape, characterised by varied methodologies and a lack of standardisation in assessment and implementation, hinders the ability to comprehensively understand and quantify the benefits of social prescribing. An effective evaluation framework would enable better comparison across different programs, facilitate the identification of best practices, and contribute to the continuous improvement of social prescribing services. Establishing this framework is pivotal for substantiating the role of social prescribing in holistic patient care and for ensuring its effective integration into broader healthcare systems.

The implementation of social prescribing within the healthcare system, while innovative and promising, faces significant challenges, particularly in conducting methodologically rigorous studies. The intrinsic complexity and individualised nature of social prescribing make it difficult to apply traditional research methodologies, like randomised control trials, which are the gold standard in clinical research. These challenges stem from the highly personalised approach of social prescribing, where interventions are tailored to the unique social and environmental contexts of each patient. Consequently, there is a growing recognition of the need for more adaptable and context-sensitive research methods. Pragmatic trials and quasi-experimental study designs are being considered in the UK as viable alternatives. These approaches could provide more practical insights into the effectiveness of social prescribing by capturing real-world complexities and variations in implementation.

Another significant area of concern is the impact of social prescribing on the voluntary sector. The integration of social prescribing into healthcare systems raises questions about the capacity and sustainability of community-based organizations (CBOs) and voluntary services. There are worries that these organisations might face overwhelming demand due to referrals from healthcare providers, which could stretch their resources thin. Additionally, there are apprehensions about social prescribing potentially widening existing inequalities. If not carefully managed and supported, social prescribing schemes might inadvertently exacerbate disparities by funnelling resources towards more accessible or visible groups, while neglecting others who are harder to reach or less well-represented. Addressing these challenges requires a concerted effort to ensure that social prescribing is implemented in a way that is equitable, sustainable, and synergistic with the voluntary sector’s capabilities.

Critically analysing the effectiveness of social prescribing within the NHS involves examining its targeted approach and patient outcomes. The NHS has recommended social prescribing particularly for patients with long-term conditions, mental health issues, loneliness, and those with complex social needs. This targeted approach, while ensuring resources are directed to those most in need, raises questions about its inclusivity and potential to overlook others who might also benefit from such interventions. Additionally, the debate around whether to focus on high-need, high-cost patients or to adopt a more universal screening for social risks is pivotal. It reflects a broader discussion about resource allocation and the strategic direction of healthcare services in addressing social determinants of health.

The role of new technology in social prescribing is another crucial aspect to consider. The NHS’s foray into digital tools and platforms, which facilitate referrals and connections between healthcare providers and community-based organisations, presents both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, these technologies could streamline processes, improve data collection and analysis, and potentially enhance the reach and efficiency of social prescribing programmes. On the other hand, the integration of such technologies needs careful consideration to ensure they are accessible to all patient groups, including those who may be less tech-savvy. The impact of digital tools on the patient experience and the quality of care delivered through social prescribing also warrants close examination. As technology becomes more embedded in healthcare, understanding its influence on the effectiveness of social prescribing will be crucial in shaping future strategies and policies.

The Implications of Artificial Intelligence Integration within the NHS

The future of social prescribing within the NHS is likely to be significantly influenced by ongoing reforms in payment structures and the implementation of quality measures. The shift from traditional fee-for-service models to value-based payment systems could play a pivotal role in the broader adoption of social prescribing. This transition may create financial incentives for healthcare providers to engage more actively in social prescribing, as it aligns with the overarching goal of improving population health and potentially reducing healthcare costs. The inclusion of social risk screening and the implementation of social interventions as quality measures in payment contracts could further incentivise healthcare providers to integrate social prescribing into their practice. However, the impact of these changes on the national-level adoption and effectiveness of social prescribing requires careful monitoring and research to ensure that they genuinely enhance patient care without inadvertently creating new challenges or disparities.

In addition, the efforts to coordinate social prescribing research in the UK, drawing insights from similar initiatives in the US, present an opportunity to develop more informed and effective policies. By building a more robust evidence base and sharing best practices, both countries can refine their social prescribing models to better meet the needs of their populations. This collaborative approach can facilitate the identification of successful strategies, highlight areas for improvement, and ultimately contribute to the evolution of social prescribing into a more effective and integral component of healthcare. These emerging research efforts are crucial for not only assessing the current state of social prescribing but also for shaping its future trajectory, ensuring that it remains responsive to the changing healthcare landscape and continues to address the complex needs of patients.

Looking towards the future, the evolution of social prescribing within the NHS is closely tied to ongoing changes in payment reforms and quality measures. The transition from fee-for-service to value-based payment models in the healthcare system could significantly influence the adoption of social prescribing. Such payment reforms are designed to prioritise patient outcomes and cost-effectiveness, potentially providing a financial impetus for healthcare providers to incorporate social prescribing into their practice. As quality measures increasingly include elements of social care and patient well-being, there could be a stronger push towards holistic care approaches, with social prescribing playing a key role.

Furthermore, the emerging efforts to coordinate social prescribing research in the UK, taking cues from similar endeavours in the US, are likely to have a profound impact on policy development. These efforts are critical in establishing a more comprehensive understanding of how social prescribing can be effectively implemented and scaled. Learning from the US experience, the UK can refine its approach to social prescribing, addressing gaps in current practices and identifying successful strategies that can be adapted to the UK context. As research continues to evolve, it will inform policy decisions, ensuring that social prescribing is not only well-integrated into the healthcare system but also continually assessed for its efficacy and relevance to patient needs. This coordinated research approach is essential for the continued development of social prescribing, shaping it into an increasingly effective tool for addressing the holistic needs of patients.

In conclusion, social prescribing has emerged as a significant and increasingly popular approach among UK policymakers, aiming to revolutionise patient care by addressing a wide range of social and non-medical needs. Central to NHS England’s long-term plan, this approach signifies a shift towards a more holistic understanding of health, recognising the complex interplay between social factors and individual wellbeing. Despite its growing acceptance, there remains a pressing need for more robust research to inform its implementation and impact. Challenges such as the lack of standardised assessment methods, the complexity of evaluating its effectiveness, and the strain on the voluntary sector highlight the areas requiring attention. The potential of new technologies in enhancing the reach and efficiency of social prescribing also warrants exploration. Furthermore, the influence of payment reforms and quality measures on the adoption of social prescribing is an area ripe for investigation. As efforts to coordinate research in the UK, informed by international experiences, gain momentum, they promise to guide future policy developments. Ensuring that social prescribing is effectively integrated into the healthcare system, and continuously evolves based on evidence-based practices, remains a critical goal for enhancing patient care and addressing the broader determinants of health.

The Implications of Artificial Intelligence Integration within the NHS

First published 2023

This CreateAnEssay4U special edition brings together the work of previous essays and provides a comprehensive overview of an important technological area of study. For source information, see also:

https://createanessay4u.wordpress.com/tag/ai/

https://createanessay4u.wordpress.com/tag/nhs/

The advent and subsequent proliferation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) have ushered in an era of profound transformation across various sectors. Notably, within the domain of healthcare, and more specifically within the context of the United Kingdom’s National Health Service (NHS), AI’s incorporation has engendered a myriad of both unparalleled opportunities and formidable challenges. From an academic perspective, there is a burgeoning consensus that AI might be poised to rank among the most salient and transformative developments in the annals of human progression. It is neither hyperbole nor mere conjecture to assert that the innovations stemming from AI hold the potential to redefine the contours of our societal paradigms. In the ensuing discourse, we shall embark on a rigorous exploration of the multifaceted impacts of AI within the NHS, striving to delineate the promise it holds while concurrently interrogating the potential pitfalls and challenges intrinsic to such profound technological integration.

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Medical Imaging and Diagnostic Services play a pivotal role in the modern healthcare landscape, and the integration of AI within this domain has brought forth noteworthy advancements. AI’s robust capabilities for image analysis have not only enhanced the precision in diagnostics but also broadened the scope of early detection across a variety of diseases. Radiology professionals, for instance, increasingly leverage these advanced tools to identify diseases at early stages and thereby minimise diagnostic errors. Echocardiography charts, used to gauge heart patterns and detect conditions such as ischemic heart disease, are another beneficiary of AI’s analytical prowess. An example of this is the Ultromics platform from a hospital in Oxford, which employs AI to meticulously analyse echocardiography scans.

Moreover, the application of AI in diagnostics transcends cardiological needs. From detecting skin and breast cancer, eye diseases, pneumonia, to even predicting psychotic occurrences, AI’s potential in medical diagnostics is vast and promising. Neurological conditions like Parkinson’s disease can be identified through AI tools that examine speech patterns, predicting its onset and progression. In the realm of endocrinology, a study used machine learning models to foretell the onset of diabetes, revealing that a two-class augmented decision tree was most effective in predicting diabetes-associated variables.

Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

Furthermore, the global threat of COVID-19 in 2019 also saw AI playing a crucial role in early detection and diagnosis. Numerous medical imaging tools, encompassing X-rays, CT scans, and ultrasounds, employed AI techniques to assist in the timely diagnosis of the virus. Recent studies have spotlighted AI’s efficacy in differentiating COVID-19 from other conditions like pneumonia using imaging modalities like CT scans and X-rays. The surge in AI-based diagnostic tools, such as the deep learning model known as the transformer, facilitates efficient management of COVID-19 cases by offering rapid and precise analyses. Notably, the ImageNet-pretrained vision transformer was used to identify COVID-19 cases using chest X-ray images, showcasing the adaptability and precision of AI in response to pressing global health challenges.

The Role of ArtificiaI Intelligence in Revolutionising Radiology

Moreover, advancements in AI aren’t limited to diagnostic models alone. The field has seen the emergence of tools like Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs), which have considerably influenced radiological practices. Comprising a generator that produces images mirroring real ones, and a discriminator that differentiates between the two, GANs have the potential to redefine radiological operations. Such networks can replicate training images and create new ones with the training dataset’s characteristics. This technological advancement has not only aided in tasks like abnormal detection and image synthesis but has also posed challenges even for experienced radiologists, as discerning between GAN-generated and real images becomes increasingly intricate.

Education and research also stand to benefit immensely from such advancements. GANs have the potential to swiftly generate training material and simulations, addressing gaps in student understanding. As an example, if students struggle to differentiate between specific medical conditions in radiographs, GANs could produce relevant samples for clearer understanding. Additionally, GANs’ capacity to model placebo groups based on historical data can revolutionise clinical trials by minimising costs and broadening the scope of treatment arms.

Revolutionising Patient Data: The Role of Coding and AI in the NHS

Furthermore, the role of AI in offering virtual patient care cannot be overstated. In a time where in-person visits to medical facilities posed risks, AI-powered tools bridged the gap by facilitating remote consultations and care. Moreover, the management of electronic health records has been vastly streamlined due to AI, reducing the administrative workload of healthcare professionals. It’s also reshaping the dynamics of patient engagement, ensuring they adhere to their treatment plans more effectively.

The NHS Digital Clinical Safety Strategy: Towards Safer and Digitally Enabled Care

The impact of AI on healthcare has transcended beyond diagnostics, imaging, and patient care, making significant inroads into drug discovery and development. AI-driven technologies, drawing upon machine learning, bioinformatics, and cheminformatics, are revolutionising the realm of pharmacology and therapeutics. With the increasing challenges and sky-high costs associated with drug discovery, these technologies streamline the processes and drastically reduce the time and financial investments required. Historical precedents, like the AI-based robot scientist named Eve, stand as a testament to this potential. Eve not only accelerated the drug development process but also ensured its cost-effectiveness.

AI’s capabilities are not just confined to the initial phase of scouting potential molecules in the field of drug discovery. There’s a promise that AI could engage more dynamically throughout the drug discovery continuum in the near future. The numerous AI-aided drug discovery successes in the literature are a testament to this potential. A notable instance is the work by Toronto-based firm, deep genomics. Harnessing the power of an AI workbench platform, they identified a novel genetic target and consequently developed the drug candidate DG12P1, aimed at treating a rare genetic variant of Wilsons’ disease.

AI-Powered Precision Medicine: Tailoring Healthcare to the Individual Genome

One of the crucial aspects of drug development lies in identifying novel drug targets, as this could pave the way for pioneering first-in-class clinical drugs. AI proves indispensable here. It not only helps in spotting potential hit and lead compounds but also facilitates rapid validation of drug targets and the subsequent refinement in drug structure design. Another noteworthy application of AI in drug development is its ability to predict potential interactions between drugs and their targets. This capability is invaluable for drug repurposing, enabling existing drugs to swiftly progress to subsequent phases of clinical trials.

Moreover, with the data-intensive nature of pharmacological research, AI tools can be harnessed to sift through massive repositories of scientific literature, including patents and research publications. By doing so, these tools can identify novel drug targets and generate innovative therapeutic concepts. For effective drug development, models can be trained on extensive volumes of scientific data, ensuring that the ensuing predictions or recommendations are rooted in comprehensive research.

The Use of Machine Learning Models in Healthcare

Furthermore, AI’s applications aren’t just limited to drug discovery and design. It’s making tangible contributions in drug screening as well. Numerous algorithms, such as extreme learning machines, deep neural networks (DNNs), random forests (RF), support vector machines (SVMs), and nearest-neighbour classifiers, are now at the forefront of virtual screening. These are employed based on their synthesis viability and their capacity to predict in vivo toxicity and activity, thereby ensuring that potential drug candidates are both effective and safe.

The De-Skilling of the Workforce by Artificial Intelligence in the UK

The proliferation of AI in various sectors has brought along with it a range of ethical and social concerns that intersect with broader questions about technology, data usage, and automation. Central among these concerns is the question of accountability. As AI systems become more integrated into decision-making processes, especially in sensitive areas like healthcare, who is held accountable when things go wrong? The possibility of AI systems making flawed decisions, often due to intrinsic biases in the datasets they are trained on, can lead to catastrophic outcomes. An illustration of such a flaw was observed in an AI application that misjudged pneumonia-related complications and potentially jeopardised patients’ health. These erroneous decisions, often opaque in nature due to the intricate inner workings of machine learning algorithms, further fuel concerns about transparency and accountability.

Ethical and Practical Dimensions of Big Data in the NHS

Transparency, or the lack thereof, in AI systems poses its own set of challenges. As machine learning models continually refine and recalibrate their parameters, understanding their decision-making process becomes elusive. This obfuscation often referred to as the ‘black-box’ phenomenon, hampers trust and understanding. The branch of AI research known as “Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)” attempts to remedy this by making the decision-making processes of AI models understandable to humans. Through XAI, healthcare professionals and patients can glean insights into the rationale behind diagnostic decisions made by AI systems. Furthermore, this enhances the trust quotient, as evidenced by studies that underscore the importance of visual feedback in fostering trust in AI models.

Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: Boon or Bane?

Another prominent concern is the potential reinforcement of existing societal biases. AI systems, trained on historically accumulated data, can inadvertently perpetuate and even amplify biases present in the data, leading to skewed and unjust outcomes. This is particularly alarming in healthcare, where decisions can be a matter of life and death. This threat is further compounded by data privacy and security issues. AI systems that process sensitive patient information become prime targets for cyberattacks, risking unauthorised access or tampering of data, with motives ranging from financial gain to malicious intent.

The Exploitation of Data in AI Systems

The rapid integration of AI technologies in healthcare underscores the need for robust governance. Proper governance structures ensure that regulatory, ethical, and trust-related challenges are proactively addressed, thereby fostering confidence and optimising health outcomes. On an international level, regulatory measures are being established to guide the application of AI in domains requiring stringent oversight, such as healthcare. The European Union, for instance, introduced the GDPR in 2018, setting forth data protection standards. More recently, the European Commission proposed the Artificial Intelligence Act (AIA), a regulatory framework designed to ensure the responsible adoption of AI technologies, mandating rigorous assessments for high-risk AI systems.

Data Bias in Artificial Intelligence

AI in Healthcare: Navigating Biases and Inequities During COVID-19

From a technical standpoint, there are further substantial challenges to surmount. For AI to be practically beneficial in healthcare settings, it needs to be user-friendly for healthcare professionals (HCPs). The technical intricacies involved in setting up and maintaining AI infrastructure, along with concerns of data storage and validity, often act as deterrents. AI models, while potent, are not infallible. They can manifest shortcomings, such as biases or a susceptibility to being easily misled. It is, therefore, imperative for healthcare providers to strategise effectively for the seamless implementation of AI systems, addressing costs, infrastructure needs, and training requirements for HCPs.

Issues in Patient Confidentiality

The perceived opaqueness of AI-driven clinical decision support systems often makes HCPs sceptical. This, combined with concerns about the potential risks associated with AI, acts as a barrier to its widespread adoption. It is thus imperative to emphasise solutions like XAI to bolster trust and overcome the hesitancy surrounding AI adoption. Furthermore, integrating AI training into medical curricula can go a long way in ensuring its safe and informed usage in the future. Addressing these challenges head-on, in tandem with fostering a collaborative environment involving all stakeholders, will be pivotal for the responsible and effective proliferation of AI in healthcare. Recent events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and its global implications alongside the Ukraine war, underline the pressing need for transformative technologies like AI, especially when health systems are stretched thin.

Exploring Challenges of AI Implementation in Healthcare: A Study from Sweden

Given these advancements, it is pivotal however to scrutinise the sources of this information. Although formal conflicts of interest should be declared in publications, authors may have subconscious biases, for and against, the implementation of AI in healthcare, which may influence the authors’ interpretations of the data. Discussions are inevitable regarding published research, particularly since the concept of ‘false positive findings’ came to the forefront in 2005 in a review by John Ioannidis (“Why Most Published Research Findings Are False”). The observation that journals are biased in publishing more papers that have positive rather than negative findings both skews the total body of the evidence and underscores the need for studies to be accurate, representative, and negligibly biased. When dealing with AI, where the risks are substantial, relying solely on justifiable scientific evidence becomes imperative. Studies that are used for the implementation of AI systems should be well mediated by a neutral and independent third party to ensure that any advancements in AI system implementations are based solely on justified scientific evidence, and not on personal opinions, commercial interests or political views.

The Challenges of Employing Black Box Algorithms in Healthcare

The evidence reviewed undeniably points to the potential of AI in healthcare. There is no doubt that there is real benefit in a wide range of areas. AI can enable services to be run more efficiently, allow selection of patients who are most likely to benefit from a treatment, boost the development of drugs, and accurately recognise, diagnose, and treat diseases and conditions.

The Role of Medical Statistics in Healthcare

However, with these advancements come challenges. We identified some key areas of risk: the creation of good quality big data and the importance of consent; the data risks such as bias and poor data quality; the issue of a black box (lack of transparency of algorithms); data poisoning; and data security. Workforce issues were also identified: how AI works with the current workforce and the fear of workforce replacement; the risk of de-skilling; and the need for education and training, and embedding change. It was also identified that there is a current need for research into use, cost-effectiveness, and long-term outcomes of AI systems. There will always be a risk of bias, error chance statistical improbabilities, in research and published studies fundamentally due to the nature of science itself. Yet, the aim is to have a body of evidence that helps create a consensus of opinion.

Use of Artificial Intelligence in the UK NHS

In summary, the transformative power of AI in the healthcare sector is unequivocal, offering advancements that have the potential to reshape patient care, diagnostics, drug development, and a myriad of other domains. These innovations, while promising, come hand in hand with significant ethical, social, and technical challenges that require careful navigation. The dual-edged sword of AI’s potential brings to light the importance of transparency, ethical considerations, and robust governance in its application. Equally paramount is the need for rigorous scientific evaluation, with an emphasis on neutrality and comprehensive evidence to ensure AI’s benefits are realised without compromising patient safety and care quality. As the healthcare landscape continues to evolve, it becomes imperative for stakeholders to strike a balance between leveraging AI’s revolutionary capabilities and addressing its inherent challenges, all while placing the well-being of patients at the forefront.

This CreateAnEssay4U special edition brings together the work of previous essays and provides a comprehensive overview of an important technological area of study. For source information, see also:

https://createanessay4u.wordpress.com/tag/ai/

https://createanessay4u.wordpress.com/tag/nhs/

Links

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7908833/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8285156/

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32665978

https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijin.2022.05.002

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8669585/

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8421632/

https://www.who.int/docs/defaultsource/documents/gs4dhdaa2a9f352b0445bafbc79ca799dce4d.pdf

https://www.bbc.com/news/health-42357257

https://www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2017/1/ibm-5-in-5-our-words-will-be-the-windows-to-our-mental-health/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10057336/

https://doi.org/10.48550%2FarXiv.2110.14731

https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124

https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE+15th+International+Symposium+on+Biomedical+Imaging&title=How+to+fool+radiologists+with+generative+adversarial+networks?+A+visual+turing+test+for+lung+cancer+diagnosis&author=M.J.M.+Chuquicusma&author=S.+Hussein&author=J.+Burt&author=U.+Bagci&pages=240-244&

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23443421

https://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/assets/pdfs/Artificial-Intelligence-AI-in-healthcare-and-research.pdf

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10916-017-0760-1

Polypharmacy in the Aging Population: Balancing Medication, Humanity, and Care

First published 2023

Polypharmacy, the concurrent use of multiple medications by a patient, has become increasingly prevalent, especially among older adults. As societies worldwide witness a surge in their aging populations, the issue of polypharmacy becomes even more pressing. In many countries, a significant portion, often exceeding 20%, of the population is aged 65 and above. This demographic shift has several implications, not the least of which is the complex and multifaceted issue of medication management.

Women, who constitute a majority of the elderly population, become even more predominant as age advances. This gender skew in the older demographic is vital to consider, especially when discussing drug safety. Older women might face heightened susceptibility to drug-related harm compared to their male counterparts. Such vulnerabilities can arise from pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic changes. These distinctions emphasise the necessity of tailoring medication regimes to accommodate these differences, making medication optimisation for older women a priority.

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The ramifications of polypharmacy extend beyond the individual. The risks associated with polypharmacy, which include inappropriate or unsafe prescribing, can be profoundly detrimental. Recognizing these dangers, the World Health Organization (WHO) initiated the “Medication Without Harm” campaign as its third Global Patient Safety Challenge. Launched in 2017, this initiative seeks to halve avoidable medication harm over a span of five years. Its inception underscores the global nature of the polypharmacy issue and the consequent need for concerted, international attention.

Deprescribing, a strategy centered on judiciously reducing or discontinuing potentially harmful or unnecessary medications, emerges as a crucial countermeasure to polypharmacy’s perils. Implementing a systematic approach to deprescribing can not only improve an older individual’s quality of life but also significantly decrease the potential for drug-related harm. This is particularly relevant for older women, emphasising once again the need to incorporate sex and gender considerations into prescribing and deprescribing decisions.

While much of the research and initiative focus has been directed towards high-income countries, the principles of safe medication prescribing are universally relevant. The interaction between biological (sex) and sociocultural (gender) factors plays a pivotal role in determining medication safety. Understanding and accounting for these nuances can greatly enhance the process of prescribing or deprescribing medications for older adults. For clinicians to truly optimise the care of their older patients, a holistic approach to medication review and management is essential. Such an approach not only emphasises the individual’s unique needs and vulnerabilities but also incorporates broader considerations of sex and gender, ensuring a comprehensive and informed decision-making process.

The intricacies of polypharmacy and its management, especially in older adults, bring to light the broader challenges facing our healthcare system. As the elderly population grows, so does the prevalence of chronic diseases. These ailments often necessitate multiple medications for management and symptom relief. Consequently, the line between therapeutic benefit and potential harm becomes blurred. The balance between ensuring the effective management of various health conditions while avoiding medication-induced complications is a tightrope that clinicians must walk daily.

Deprescribing is not just about reducing or stopping medications; it’s about making informed decisions that prioritise the patient’s overall well-being. This involves a thorough understanding of each drug’s purpose, potential side effects, and how they interact with other medications the patient might be taking. But beyond that, it also demands an in-depth conversation between the patient and the healthcare provider. Patients’ beliefs, concerns, and priorities must be integral to the decision-making process. This collaborative approach ensures that the process of deprescribing respects the individual’s values and desires, moving away from a solely clinical standpoint to one that incorporates patient autonomy and quality of life.

Furthermore, the integration of technology and data analytics can play a significant role in enhancing medication safety. Electronic health records, when used effectively, can offer a comprehensive view of a patient’s medication history, allowing clinicians to identify potential drug interactions or redundancies. Predictive analytics, fed with vast amounts of data, might also identify patients at high risk for drug-related harms, thereby aiding in early interventions. The digital age, with its myriad tools, has the potential to revolutionise the way we approach polypharmacy, offering more precise, personalised, and proactive care.

However, while technology can assist, it cannot replace the fundamental human elements of care — empathy, understanding, and communication. The process of deprescribing, or even the decision to continue a medication, often involves deep emotional and psychological dimensions for patients. Fear of relapsing into illness, concerns about changing what seems to be working, or even the symbolic acknowledgment of aging and frailty can be profound considerations for many. Clinicians must be attuned to these subtleties, approaching each case with sensitivity and a genuine commitment to understanding the person behind the patient.

Moreover, education and continuous training are pivotal. Healthcare professionals must stay updated on the latest research, guidelines, and best practices related to medication management in older adults. This not only pertains to the intricacies of pharmacology but also to the soft skills of patient communication, shared decision-making, and ethical considerations. A well-informed and compassionate healthcare provider is a cornerstone of safe and effective medication management.

In conclusion, addressing the challenges of polypharmacy in an aging global population requires a multi-faceted approach. While the scientific and technical aspects are undeniably crucial, the human elements — understanding, collaboration, and compassion — remain at the heart of optimal care. As we navigate the complexities of medication management, it is essential to remember that at the centre of every decision is an individual, with their hopes, fears, and aspirations. Prioritising their holistic well-being, informed by both science and humanity, is the ultimate goal.

Links

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health

https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-HIS-SDS-2017.6

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1019475/good-for-you-good-for-us-good-for-everybody.pdf

https://www.agedcarequality.gov.au/news-centre/newsletter/quality-bulletin-36-december-2021

https://www.nia.nih.gov/news/dangers-polypharmacy-and-case-deprescribing-older-adults

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9450314/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4239968/

https://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12877-022-03408-6

Navigating the Complex Landscape of AI-Augmented Labour

First published 2023

Artificial intelligence (AI) has transformed the world, automating tedious tasks and pioneering breakthroughs in various sectors like healthcare. This rapid transformation promises unprecedented productivity boosts and avenues for innovation. However, as AI integrates deeper into the fabric of our daily lives, it has become evident that its benefits are not distributed evenly. Its impact could exacerbate existing social and economic disparities, particularly across demographics like race, making the dream of an equitable AI future elusive.

Today, many aspects of our lives, ranging from mundane tasks to critical decision-making in healthcare, benefit from AI’s potential. But the growing chasm of inequality resulting from AI’s penetration has sparked concerns. Business and governmental leaders are under mounting pressure to ensure AI’s advantages are universally accessible. Yet, the challenges seem to evolve daily, leading to a piecemeal approach to solutions or, in some instances, no solutions at all. Addressing AI-induced inequalities necessitates a proactive, holistic strategy.

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A recent survey highlighted this division starkly. Out of the participants, 41% identified as “AI Alarmists”, those who harbour reservations about AI’s encroachment into the workplace. On the other hand, 31% were “AI Advocates” who staunchly support AI’s incorporation into labour. The remaining 28% were “AI Agnostics”, a group that views AI’s integration with balanced optimism and skepticism. Even though these figures originate from a limited online survey, they underscore the absence of a singular mindset on AI’s value in labour. The varying perspectives on the uses and users of AI provide a glimpse into the broader societal evaluations, which the researchers aim to examine further in upcoming studies.

To pave the path for a more equitable AI future, policymakers and business leaders must first identify the underlying forces propelling AI-driven inequalities. A comprehensive framework that captures these forces is proposed while emphasising the intricate social mechanisms through which AI both creates and perpetuates disparity. This approach offers twofold advantages: it’s versatile enough to be applicable across varied contexts, from healthcare to art, and it sheds light on the often-unseen ways AI impacts the demand for goods and services, a crucial factor in the spread of inequality.

Algorithmic bias epitomises the technological forces. It arises when decision-making algorithms perpetually disadvantage certain groups. The implications of such biases can be disastrous, especially in critical sectors like healthcare, criminal justice, and credit scoring. Currently, natural language processing AI (reading written text and interpreting it for coding) can be a specific cause of unconscious biases in AI systems. For example, it can process medical documents and then code it as data that is then used to make inferences from large datasets. If an AI system interprets medical notes where there are well established human biases (such as disproportionate recording of particular questions), for example, towards African American or LGBTQ+ patients, the AI could then generate a link between these characteristics. These real-world biases will then be silently reinforced and multiplied, which could lead to systematic racial and homophobic biases in the AI system.

AI’s effects on supply and demand also intricately contribute to inequality. On the supply side, AI’s potential to automate and augment human labour can significantly reduce the costs of delivering some services and products. However, as research suggests, certain jobs, especially those predominantly held by Black and Hispanic workers, are more susceptible to automation.

On the demand side, AI’s integration into various professions affects people’s valuation of those services. Research indicates that professionals advertising AI-augmented services might be perceived as less valuable or less skilled.

A metaphor that aptly describes this scenario is a tripod. If one leg (force) is deficient, it destabilises the entire structure, compromising its function and value. For a truly equitable AI future, all forces must be robust and well-balanced.

Rectifying these disparities requires multifaceted strategies. Platforms offering AI-generated services should educate consumers about AI’s complementary role, emphasising that it enhances rather than replaces human expertise. While addressing algorithmic biases and automation’s side effects is vital, these efforts alone won’t suffice. Achieving an era where AI uplifts and equalises requires stakeholders – from industries to governments and scholars – to collaboratively devise strategies that champion human-centric and equitable AI benefits.

In summation, the integration of AI into various sectors, from healthcare to graphic design, promises immense potential. However, it’s equally essential to address the challenges that arise, particularly concerning biases and public perception. As our society navigates the AI-augmented landscape, the tripod metaphor is a poignant reminder that every aspect needs equal attention and support. Rectifying algorithmic biases, reshaping perceptions, and fostering collaboration between sectors are crucial steps towards a more inclusive and equitable AI future. Embracing these facets will not only unlock AI’s full potential but also ensure its harmonious coexistence with human expertise, leading us towards a future that benefits all.

Links

https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2023/02/22/60-of-americans-would-be-uncomfortable-with-provider-relying-on-ai-in-their-own-health-care/

Algorithmic Bias in Health Care Exacerbates Social Inequities — How to Prevent It

The NHS Dilemma: Privatisation Prospects and the Quest for Equitable Healthcare

First published 2023

The National Health Service (NHS) of the United Kingdom stands as a hallmark of social welfare, providing comprehensive healthcare services to citizens irrespective of their socio-economic background. As debates about the efficiency and sustainability of publicly-funded healthcare systems continue, the question of whether the NHS should be privatised remains a contentious issue. It is necessary to explore the arguments for and against privatising the NHS, taking into account the potential impacts on accessibility, quality of care, costs, and the overarching principles of equity and social responsibility.

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Proponents of NHS privatisation often argue that introducing market competition can enhance efficiency and foster innovation. Private healthcare providers might introduce new technologies and management techniques, which could lead to shorter waiting times, better patient outcomes, and more streamlined services. Competition among providers could encourage them to strive for excellence, ultimately benefiting patients.

Critics of the NHS’s current structure point out that it is a significant drain on public finances. Privatisation could potentially reduce the burden on the government by allowing private investors to inject capital into healthcare services. This might free up public funds for other pressing social needs. Moreover, privatisation could allow patients to choose from a variety of healthcare plans tailored to their individual needs and preferences. This personalisation might lead to increased patient satisfaction and a greater sense of control over one’s own healthcare decisions.

On the other hand, one of the central tenets of the NHS is its commitment to providing healthcare services to all, regardless of their financial status. Privatisation could introduce a tiered system where those who can afford it receive faster and higher-quality care, while those who cannot are left with subpar services. This goes against the principle of equal access and might exacerbate health inequalities.

Critics argue that when healthcare becomes a for-profit industry, the primary focus might shift from patient well-being to financial gain. This could lead to decisions that prioritise cost-cutting measures and profit maximisation over the best interests of patients. Privatisation might lead to a fragmented healthcare system, making coordination and continuity of care more challenging. The current integrated structure of the NHS allows for a holistic approach to patient health, which could be compromised if different providers operate independently.

While proponents of privatisation claim it could reduce costs, evidence from other countries with private healthcare systems suggests otherwise. Administrative costs often rise due to the complexity of managing multiple insurance plans and billing systems. Additionally, private providers might inflate prices to maximise profits.

The question of whether the NHS should be privatised is a complex issue that hinges on fundamental values and long-term implications. While privatisation could potentially bring efficiency gains and innovation to the healthcare sector, it also carries significant risks, including undermining equal access and patient-centered care. Balancing these considerations is crucial for any decision related to the future of the NHS. Instead of outright privatisation, policymakers could explore hybrid models that incorporate private sector involvement while maintaining the core principles of universal access and equitable care. Ultimately, the focus should remain on ensuring the well-being of all citizens, regardless of their socio-economic status, in line with the fundamental ethos of the NHS.

Links

https://iea.org.uk/motion-should-the-nhs-be-privatised/

https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/blog/2023/01/does-it-matter-people-are-opting-out-nhs-private-treatment

https://www.theweek.co.uk/news/science-health/956032/pros-and-cons-of-privatising-the-nhs

https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/publications/health-and-social-care-england-myths

The De-Skilling of the Workforce by Artificial Intelligence in the UK

First published 2023

The rapid advancement of technology has brought about profound changes in various industries and professions around the world. In the UK, one of the most notable developments has been the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) systems, which are capable of performing tasks that were traditionally carried out by humans. This has sparked concerns regarding the potential de-skilling of the workforce in certain areas. De-skilling refers to the phenomenon where individuals lose their expertise or the need for certain skills diminishes due to technological advancements. This is particularly true in areas where AI has the potential to significantly outperform human capability or where the use of AI can be more cost-effective and efficient.

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A prime example of this concern can be seen in the medical field, especially in the realm of diagnostics. There is a risk that for some skills such as ECG interpretation, where there is now capacity for fully AI-led analysis, there could be a de-skilling of the workforce, as it is possible that clinicians will not be taught ECG interpretation, or keep up their current skills. The implications of this are profound. ECG interpretation, which involves analysing the electrical activity of the heart to diagnose potential abnormalities, has traditionally been a crucial skill for medical professionals. With AI systems now capable of performing this task, there’s a growing concern that future generations of doctors and medical professionals might become overly reliant on technology, potentially compromising the quality of patient care in scenarios where AI might fail or be unavailable.

However, while the fear of de-skilling is valid, there are also undeniable advantages to the AI-led analysis of ECGs. While it is arguable that the de-skilling in ECG interpretation is already happening, it is also highly likely AI interpretation of ECGs makes diagnoses of heart conditions easier and more accessible, and therefore benefits more people. With AI’s capability to process vast amounts of data quickly and identify patterns that might be overlooked by the human eye, many believe that the technology could lead to more accurate and timely diagnoses, which in turn could lead to better patient outcomes.

Outside of the medical realm, another sector in the UK that is witnessing the potential de-skilling effects of AI is the financial industry, especially in areas related to data analysis and predictions. For years, financial analysts have relied on their expertise to interpret market trends, evaluate stock performances, and make predictions for future market movements. With the advent of AI, algorithms can now process vast amounts of data at unparalleled speeds, producing forecasts and insights that can sometimes surpass human analysis in terms of accuracy and efficiency. Consequently, there’s a growing apprehension that new entrants into the financial sector may become overly dependent on these AI tools, foregoing the development of deep analytical skills and the intuitive understanding of market nuances. Such a shift could result in a workforce less equipped to think critically or creatively, especially in unprecedented market situations where historical data, and thus AI predictions based on that data, may not be as applicable. This highlights that while AI offers immense advantages in streamlining tasks and improving accuracy, it is crucial to ensure that it complements rather than replaces the indispensable human element in various professions.

In the field of manufacturing and production in the UK, the integration of AI and automation has similarly initiated discussions around the potential de-skilling of workers. Historically, manufacturing jobs have demanded a blend of technical expertise and hands-on skills, with workers often mastering detailed tasks over years of experience. Today, many of these tasks are becoming automated, with robots and AI systems taking over processes such as assembly, quality control, and even more sophisticated functions like welding or precision cutting. The efficiency and consistency offered by these machines are undeniable, but there’s growing concern that future generations of manufacturing workers might be relegated to simply overseeing machines or performing rudimentary maintenance tasks. This could result in a loss of intricate handcrafting skills, problem-solving abilities, and the nuanced understanding that comes with human touch and intuition. While automation promises enhanced productivity and potentially safer working environments, it’s essential that efforts are made to preserve the invaluable craftsmanship and expertise that have long been the hallmark of the manufacturing sector.

Furthermore, it’s essential to recognise that while AI has made significant strides in various fields, it is not infallible. In the medical field, for example, it is likely that there will always be a need for experts as AI will be unable to interpret extremely complex readings. Such situations will require human expertise, intuition, and the holistic understanding that comes with years of training and experience. In essence, while AI can augment and enhance the diagnostic process, the value of human expertise remains irreplaceable.

In conclusion, the rise of AI in the UK’s workforce brings with it both challenges and opportunities. While there are genuine concerns about the de-skilling of professionals in certain areas, it’s also important to recognise the potential benefits of these technological advancements. The key lies in striking a balance – leveraging AI’s capabilities while also ensuring that the workforce remains skilled and adept in their respective fields.

Links

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/615d9a1ad3bf7f55fa92694a/impact-of-ai-on-jobs.pdf

https://www.consultancy.uk/news/22101/ai-to-necessitate-major-re-skilling-of-workforce

In a high-skill, high-tech economy, who is work for?

The Socio-Cultural Tapestry of Roman Women’s Attire

First published 2023

The clothing worn by Roman women throughout the Roman Empire served not just as a functional covering but also as an expression of their societal status and financial affluence. At the heart of this system was the intersection of fashion and social hierarchy, which played a pivotal role in demarcating social stratification.

In the realm of historical fashion documentation, Kelly Olson’s examination of women’s clothing in “Matrona and Whore” provides essential insights. She highlights that the garments worn by prostitutes and married women in ancient Rome were strikingly similar. The long garments known as tunics, which were derived from the Greek chiton, acted as the primary piece of clothing. This tunic was worn alongside a stola that covered the majority of their bodies. Interestingly, the choice of material was a reflection of affluence. Linen and silk from China, courtesy of the famed Silk Road trade, was reserved for the wealthy few. The hairstyle of Roman women, influenced heavily by Greek fashion, further complemented their attire. The intricate plaited designs and the incorporation of wigs and extensions served as an evident marker of societal stature.

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Eliza Burbano, in “Dress and Womanhood of Ancient Rome,” expands on this understanding by asserting that clothing wasn’t just a tool to showcase societal position but also became a medium to communicate societal injustices. The Romans’ conceptualisation of femininity was rigid, with expectations firmly anchored in women’s responsibilities to their families. The act of making clothes for one’s family, while not commercially viable, was a hallmark of moral virtue and thus, enhanced a woman’s status in the society.

While the Romans saw clothing as a reflection of societal roles and status, the evolution of fashion in Europe had a slightly different trajectory. As Europe stabilised post the Crusades, a surge in finished clothing in marketplaces was witnessed, marking the formal birth of fashion studies. Unlike the Romans, European fashion was deeply entrenched in the rise of capitalism.

John Peacock’s “Chronicles of Western Fashion” serves as a visual testament to the evolution of fashion from antiquity to the modern day. The detailed illustrations, encompassing varied periods and regions, shed light on the nuances of dress patterns, tailoring techniques, and fabric choices. This vast collection aids in understanding the universality of fashion as a mode of self and societal expression.

Diving deeper into the intricacies of ancient clothing, “The Clothed Body in the Ancient World” by Cleland and colleagues sheds light on the symbiotic relationship between clothing, environmental conditions, societal positions, and even stages of life. Through expert interviews and detailed visual documentations, this text aids in understanding the broader context in which Roman women’s clothing functioned.

In their comprehensive survey, Tortora and Marcketti trace the journey of costume design from ancient worlds to contemporary times. Their detailed chronicles highlight the inspiration drawn from ancient civilisations in shaping modern fashion. The wrap skirts of yore, for instance, remain a contemporary fashion staple, signifying the lasting legacy of ancient fashion designs.

Finally, the “Fashion History Timeline” by FIT art history faculty and students serves as an evolving digital repository of fashion’s chronicles. The platform, with its extensive articles, is an affirmation of fashion’s undying relevance throughout history.

In conclusion, the clothing of Roman women, while serving its primary purpose, was so much more than just attire. It was a canvas that bore the markings of societal hierarchy, personal affluence, moral virtue, and even societal injustices. The delicate interplay of fabric, design, and accessorising in ancient Rome echoed the nuances of the socio-cultural environment, cementing fashion’s place as a key historical and cultural marker.

Links

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233592290_IMatrona_and_Whore_The_Clothing_of_Women_in_Roman_Antiquity

https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/

https://digitalworks.union.edu/theses/124/

https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393313482

https://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/the-clothed-body-in-the-ancient-world.html

Why do Sociologists Reject Nurture Theories of Behaviour?

First published 2023

We have two different explanations for human behaviour. One uses nature to explain behaviour, the other uses nurture. The question is, which is the best explanation? If you use nature to explain why people think and act as they do, then you are saying that human behaviour is something do with genes. As you may know from science lessons, most animals with the same genes look very similar to each other and behave in almost the same way.

All human beings have the same basic biology so it would follow that all humans would behave in the same way if what we did was based just on nature. People in Britain do tend to behave in a similar way. They do similar things and wear certain types of clothing. Do all people all over the world behave in the same way? Sociologists tend to say ‘no’ and use three types of evidence to prove the point.

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The first type of argument uses historical evidence. If human behaviour was in our genes then human behaviour over a period of time would hardly change, in the same way that animal behaviour only changes very slowly. Your knowledge and understanding of history shows you that this is not the case. Just over three hundred years ago women were burnt or drowned because they behaved differently from others. They would be accused of witchcraft when now we would consider these women eccentric, different or at worst mentally ill.

The second argument uses anthropological evidence. Anthropologists are people who study and compare societies from all over the world. If our behaviour was in our genes then people all around the world would behave in the same way. Anthropologists show that people behave differently in different societies. For example, among the Sioux Indians of North America people show wealth by giving what they own away.

A case study is a study of one particular person. We study individuals to find out about all people.  If our behaviour was a result of genes then our behaviour would not change much during our lives or from one person to another. We would all be the same. If our behaviour is just to do with nature, then people who are brought up without other people will behave as other people do. Dogs who are brought up without other dogs will still wag their tails and bark, but humans who are brought up by animals, such as the ‘wolf boy of Aveyron’ or Amala and Kamala behave very differently from other children.

This goes to prove that humans are taught how to behave by other people in society. Although our biology may be important in how we behave, sociologists believe that society and culture are far more important in giving us our norms, morals and values.

Balancing Individualised Care with Generalised Approaches in Medicine

First published 2022

The practice of medicine has perennially oscillated between two poles: the provision of individualised care and the adherence to generalised medical standards. Historically, physicians served specific communities, intimately familiar with each member, and were apt to deliver care rooted deeply in personal knowledge and context. An example of this can be seen in the traditional family doctor model, where the physician knew not just the medical history, but also the sociocultural background of each patient, leading to a highly personalised treatment approach. However, as medical science advanced and populations surged, a shift towards generalisation became inevitable. The rise of evidence-based medicine, backed by large-scale clinical studies, gave birth to standardised protocols that prioritised overarching principles and practices.

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Yet, the age-old debate persists: should medicine cater to the collective or to the individual? While standardisation ensures consistent quality of care and is particularly beneficial for scalability and cost-effectiveness, it often overlooks the nuances of individual patient needs. For instance, the treatment guidelines for hypertension might suggest a particular class of medication for most individuals, but certain patients might respond differently due to genetic factors or co-existing health conditions. On the other hand, exclusively focusing on individual needs can strain already limited healthcare resources, given the time and attention each personalised treatment plan demands.

Henri de Mondeville, a renowned surgeon of the Middle Ages, is often credited for his forward-thinking approach to medicine, which emphasised the importance of individualised care. Living in the 14th century, a period marked by profound changes in the understanding of the human body and the nature of diseases, de Mondeville’s perspective was notably progressive. During this era, medicine was predominantly guided by ancient texts, with a strong inclination towards the teachings of Hippocrates and Galen. Treatments were often based on broad categorisations and humoral theories, which proposed that diseases were the result of imbalances in bodily fluids. Against this backdrop, de Mondeville’s assertion that “Anyone who believes that anything can be suited to everyone is a great fool, because medicine is practised not on mankind in general, but on every individual in particular,” was groundbreaking. By emphasising the need to treat every patient as a unique individual, he challenged the prevailing one-size-fits-all approach. This sentiment was not merely about distinguishing one patient from another based on symptoms, but a deeper call to understand the holistic context in which a patient existed. His views can be juxtaposed against prevalent practices like bloodletting, which, irrespective of individual nuances, was often prescribed as a universal remedy for various ailments. Through this lens, de Mondeville’s statement can be viewed not only as a clinical guideline but also as a philosophical stance on the ethics and approach of medical care.

As healthcare evolves, especially in the face of technological advancements and growing patient awareness, the weight of this debate grows heavier. Henri de Mondeville’s assertion that medicine is practised not on people in general but on every individual in particular brings to light a significant aspect of patient care, suggesting that the practice of medicine should be tailored to the unique circumstances of each individual. As posited by de Mondeville, medicine does not follow a one-size-fits-all approach but is rather a tailored art encompassing a patient and their context. This idea of considering a patient’s context is fundamentally important. Take the instance of chronic pain: where a generic solution might involve administering pain killers, understanding the patient’s individual context might reveal that the pain has psychological roots, perhaps stemming from depression or a tumultuous family situation. In such cases, a more appropriate intervention might involve lifestyle changes as opposed to medication.

Medicine is not merely about addressing physiological ailments but is intrinsically tied to making decisions that best align with the specific needs and circumstances of each patient. For instance, in dealing with an elderly individual suffering from both cancer and dementia, the optimal decision might lean towards palliative care aimed at alleviating pain rather than aggressive treatments. The emergence of precision medicine, which strives to tailor treatments at an individual level, reinforces de Mondeville’s perspective. This approach diverges from traditional medical practices, focusing instead on crafting personalised therapeutic plans based on a patient’s unique genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors.

Contrarily, while de Mondeville’s statement highlights the importance of individualised care, it also beckons a counter perspective. Adopting a strictly individual approach can be burdensome, both in terms of time and resources. Given the constraints faced by healthcare systems like the NHS, providing bespoke care for every single patient might prove to be impractical. Furthermore, the realm of pharmacology often depends on a more generalised approach. Clinical trials, which form the bedrock of drug approvals, operate on generalised models to ascertain the efficacy and safety of potential treatments. Such generalisations are essential to validate correlations and to determine treatments that are universally effective. Moreover, an overemphasis on individual care might inadvertently introduce biases, compromising the principle of non-maleficence in medicine.

Furthermore, the advent of artificial intelligence in medicine underscores the importance of generalisation. AI systems are inherently designed to identify patterns across large data sets. These patterns, derived from generalised data, hold promise for shaping the future of medicine. While it’s undeniable that individual care is paramount, it’s equally imperative to recognize the utility and efficiency offered by generalised approaches.

In reflecting on de Mondeville’s statement, it becomes evident that while individualised care is essential, a balanced approach that marries both individual and generalised methods might be the most pragmatic way forwards in medicine. Emphasising one over the other might limit the potential for comprehensive and efficient patient care. It is in the amalgamation of both these approaches that the true essence and effectiveness of medical practice can be realised.

Links

https://www.azquotes.com/quote/1030374

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8731341/pdf/buffmedj145808-0018.pdf

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1114973/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7786717/

https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/ppp-involving-people-health-care-guidance.pdf

Is Rehabilitation More Effective Than Incarceration?

First published 2022

The elementary concept of rehabilitative schemes is that a person who has ever been involved with bypassing the law will never want to reface a punishment again after they have been set free or completed their required punishment. Widely, it is having been hoped that a convict’s experience with rehabilitative programs will embed a long lasting mental scar allowing the individual to rethink their actions, thus, to avoid being a part of a long-lasting punishment program.

To improve rehabilitative curriculars, many prisons are starting to supply psychiatrics and mind specialists to deal with prisoners and their mental welfare as many lives per day within prison are being lost due to mental health anxieties with suicide being the primary cause of death within American prisons. This is predominantly because people who live with a mental illness are more likely to encounter the justice system; resulting in an increase of the number of arrests and incarceration. The National Survey of Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) 2015 concluded that a large percentage of the U.S. prison and jail inmate population are currently experiencing serious psychological wellbeing matters (40%) compared to the non-institutionalized population (5%) indicating that an increase in the supply of psychiatrics and mind experts shall benefit the internees who are distressed.

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Prisons have also started to deliver classroom surroundings in which inmates will benefit from given education, helping countless individuals to overcome a background of little or no education. Upon an inmate’s release, research suggests that prisoners who abide the programs and take complete consideration of the given help by psychiatric specialists are often given a better opportunity to succeed in society and have an increased chance of becoming law enduring citizens, so, not addressing the mental health of inmates will ultimately “set prisoners up for failure when they re-enter their communities and social circles”.

Major studies, have found that the cost that is needed for the incarceration of one individual is $63,000 per year, whereas, only a minor funding of $2,000 is required per year to provide education and psychological care in prisons, thus indicating the large funding gap between incarceration and mental healthcare programs which are more likely to reform individuals. One national survey deduced by the RAND Corporation, implied that 43% of convicts who have experienced educational and health programs with psychological doctors within prison are less likely to be reincarcerated, and, that ‘for every $1 spent on productive reforms, $5 is saved in reduced reincarceration costs’, emphasising that the imprisonment of criminals is not constructive, as providing informative agendas along with psychiatric doctors and health specialists has been significantly successful as well as cost effective with achieving an element of reform.

A viable case could be made for the contention that rehabilitative agendas are successful at decreasing the rates of recidivism. Rehabilitation programs have been known to commonly reduce the rate of re-offense if they include practical principles and values which have been conducted in a thorough manor towards the offender. An investigation of certain ex-convicts has demonstrated that the many inmates who are a part of specific vocational studies while imprisoned have an increased chance of being rewarded a job after their release as “vocational studies appear to have the best results in getting inmates trained for jobs that are readily available upon release”. Moreover, prior to release, the offenders who have been granted vocational agendas are likely to receive a respectable occupation after release.

Due to the range of success through vocational activities, the reduced recidivism statistics have been highlighted by a study directed by the RAND Corporation, which found that when a large amount of effort was conducted by educational programmes in some places, according to the correct agenda, has in fact portrayed certain programs were rather positively effective. Offenders, who contributed with programs that provide advice on alcohol and drugs, but also participated in community service schedules, were suggested to have ‘43 percent lower odds of returning to prison than those who do not participate with the vocational or constructive programmes’.  Rehabilitation programmes are for the mainstream of prisoners, and extra funding should be spent on those who are enthusiastic for particular curriculars. But it would be foolish to not help those who did not even want a change as an element of success is highly likely after the ending of a constructive programme. Effective rehabilitation and re-entry curriculars that aid prisoners with going home are depicted as greatly significant to the offender, and to the rest of society too.

Rehabilitation programs have also been effective due to the individual and exclusive support which is offered to such offenders. Prior to when rehabilitative programs were individually helpful to inmates, many incarcerated offenders commonly felt isolated or withdrawn from others; with the prison environment strengthening that belief and preventing prisoners from reengaging within society after release. Specific rehabilitation agendas for certain offenders are significant as they are tools which offer the opportunity to regain self-confidence and change their lives for the better. Convicts who are granted access to specialist individual programmes can utilise the agenda to gain a moral basis and study how to perform as an accountable adult in society.

It has also been elucidated that individual constructive programmes have had a large success when applying exclusive rehabilitative agendas to certain offenders. Due to an up rise in exclusive schedules provided by the authorities, certain programs such as the ‘Substance Abuse Felony Punishment (SAFP)’ had significantly reduced recidivism by 14%. This substantially large figure of decrease implies that the work of separate reintegration programmes for individuals was highly successful, emphasising criminals who commit trivial crimes such as robbery and drug related offences deserve individualistic programmes to develop effective life skills, stating that restoration plans are much more essential at reforming convicts than reincarcerating the individuals at fault, as they have been significantly successful in the past decade.

Research over a number years, has found that trivial rehabilitative programmes such as substance abuse agendas, applied to drug offenders, is more cost effective than incarcerating individuals who have been a part of drug related crimes. As emphasised by a report in 1977, the National Treatment Improvement Evaluation Study (NTIES) concluded that “treatment appears to be cost effective, particularly when compared to incarceration, which is often the alternative”, implying the idea that a term of prison is not at all constructive when compared to the “cheap alternative” methods such as rehabilitative plans. Additionally, studies have portrayed the fact that drug offenders who have received a drug reform agenda have been known to show more signs of reduced criminal behaviour in contrast to those who receive prison time for similar offences.

The results that occur from addiction treatment varies depending on the treatment category, although numerous studies conducted by large scale organisations have indicated treatment for drug reprobates is expressively more effective than incarceration in reducing criminal performance. The Drug Treatment Alternative to Prison (DTAP) program in Brooklyn, New York, permits alcohol or drug defendants to plead guilty to a given offence, and then entering an individualist therapeutic community treatment system that can last for a total of two years, this is an alternative option to being incarcerated. One of the DTAPs recent evaluations has been researched by the National Centre on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, which found that the DTAP had attained effective results in reducing recidivism while keeping the rehabilitation costs efficient. Following the results, it has been clarified that “drug treatment, vocational training and support services, was $32,975 compared to an average cost of $64,338 if the individual had been placed in prison”. Thus, primarily reflecting upon the assumption that trivial rehabilitative programmes are greatly efficient as they have a higher reform chance but are also financially significant due to their relatively low costs, compared to the expenses that incarceration requires.

Last of all, an increase in community service schemes which have been provided by rehabilitative programmes, have proved to be largely significant in reforming criminals, the majority consisting of young offenders. The concept of community service acts as a substitute to the much harsher criminal punishments such as incarceration because it was ‘designed to connect the offenders to the victim or society in a civil manner so that they understand how their actions affect others, generally meaning that community programmes are often lenient but firm’.

Commonly, the introductions of community services are delivered by a magistrate of judge to a young offender, or an individual who has committed their first crime. This punishment can also be given to individuals who have completed minor offences such as robbery and traffic defilements. The offender is then required to complete unpaid work under the supervision of a community service officer who examines the work of the wrongdoer. From the community programmes applied by rehabilitative agendas in Canada, only $2,053 of the $43,287 to house an inmate is required to complete a reform program, thus denoting the positive economic impact which rehabilitation plans could potentially have on the economy. Consequentially, the money saved from applying community reforms can be utilised in order to improve the living standards of communities.

In continuation, a viable case can be contended, elucidating that public reform programs are significantly healthier than the notion of imprisonment. This is solely due to community agendas commonly helping the criminal to rehabilitate more effectively with the use of resources and support. So, delivering the concept of community reform programs would ultimately allow the offender to give something positive back to society as a way of proving their change of attitude. By committing to community help schemes, offenders will have a smaller risk of returning to felonious activity neither in the number of crimes, or seriousness of the crimes. In essence, if the offender was punished in the form of incarceration, a confined room will ultimately limit the resources to rehabilitate them, thus emphasising the constructive significance that community reform agendas have produced in the past decade.

Ultimately, the effects that rehabilitative programs have had within the past decade propose that it is no longer justifiable to conclude that “nothing works”.  To summarise the constructive properties of rehabilitative programs, one of the key achievements that many prisons and rehabilitative schemes have portrayed throughout the last decade is the introduction of psychiatrics and doctors to consult and aid convicts with their mental health, helping them through systems that will be beneficial to their personal character prior to and after release, mentally and socially. Furthermore, a chief factor which has had a vast influence on the offender, and society, is the budget costs between rehabilitative programmes and imprisonment, as constructive agendas such as community service portray that they can be successful, while being twelve times cheaper than incarceration.

Links

http://time.com/4782404/prison-mental-health-stigma-suicide/

http://theconversation.com/mental-health-care-for-prisoners-could-prevent-rearrest-but-prisons-arent-designed-for-rehabilitation-45628

http://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/nyregion/chatter-rehabilitation-in-prison.html

https://www.rand.org/news/press/2013/08/22.html

http://www.justicepolicy.org/uploads/justicepolicy/documents/04-01_rep_mdtreatmentorincarceration_ac-dp.pdf

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-community-service-definition-programs-benefits-examples.html

Big Data: Two Sides of An Argument

First published 2022

In this contemporary era, technology is continually advancing, leading to the accumulation of personal data in the form of numerous digits and figures. The term ‘Big Data’ refers to data that contains greater variety, arriving in increasing volumes and with more velocity, which is often referred to as the three Vs. In simpler terms, big data encompasses extensive and intricate datasets, particularly those stemming from novel data sources. These datasets are of such immense volume that conventional data processing software is inadequate for handling them. Nevertheless, these vast pools of data can be harnessed to solve business challenges that were previously insurmountable. For example, ‘Big Data’ is required for AI to work properly. For the AI algorithms to correctly recognise and ‘Intelligently’ understand patterns and correlations, they need access to a huge amount of data. It is important that this big data has the correct ‘Volume, Velocity, and Variety’ (3 Vs).

Many individuals are concerned about safeguarding this intangible yet highly valuable aspect of their lives. Given the profound importance people place on their privacy, numerous inquiries emerge regarding the ultimate custodians of this information. What if it came to light that corporations were exploiting loopholes in data privacy regulations to further their own financial gains? Two articles examine the concept of exposing private information: “Private License Plate Scanners Amassing Vast Databases Open to Highest Bidders” (RT, 2014) and “Who Has The Right to Track You?” (David Sirota, 2014). While unveiling how specific businesses profit from the scanning of license plates and the collection of individuals’ personal data, both authors effectively employ a range of persuasive techniques to sway their readers.

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Pathos serves as a rhetorical device that aims to evoke emotional responses from the audience. In the second article, titled “Who Has The Right to Track You?”, David Sirota adeptly employs pathos to establish a strong emotional connection with his readers. Starting with the article’s title and continuing with questions like, “Do corporations have a legal right to track your car?”, he deliberately strikes a chord of apprehension within the reader. Sirota uses phrases such as “mass surveillance” and “mass photography,” repeatedly emphasising the accumulation of “millions of license plate images” to instill a sense of insecurity in the reader.

Throughout the article, he maintains a tone of genuine concern and guardianship on his part, often addressing the reader in the second person and assuring them that he is an advocate for “individuals’ privacy rights.” This approach enables him to forge a connection with the audience, making them feel as though he is actively looking out for their well-being.

The author of the second article, RT, employs pathos to engage with readers from a contrasting standpoint. He employs phrases such as “inhibiting scanners would…create a safe haven…for criminals” and “reduce the safety of our officers, and it could ultimately result in lives lost”. These statements are crafted to instill fear in the audience, persuading them to consider the necessity of sacrificing their privacy for the sake of law enforcement’s ability to safeguard them. RT avoids using the term “mass surveillance” and instead employs more lighthearted expressions like “the scanners ‘scoop up 1,800 plates a minute'”. By using this less threatening language, such as “scoop up,” the author intends to alleviate any concerns readers may have about this practice, portraying it in a more benign light.

Both authors employ the rhetorical device of logos, which involves using logic and reason to persuade their respective audiences. Sirota, for instance, provides data such as the cameras in question “capturing data on over 50 million vehicles each month” and their widespread use in major metropolitan areas. This substantial data serves to evoke discomfort in the reader and cultivate a fundamental distrust in these surveillance systems. Sirota further invokes reason by highlighting that valuable information like “household income” is being collected to enable companies to target consumers more effectively. Through this logical approach, he underscores the ethical concerns regarding how companies disseminate such information to willing clients.

In contrast, RT employs logos to assuage the reader’s concerns about data collection. He emphasises that the primary users of this data collection are “major banks, tracking those defaulting on loans,” and the police, who use it to apprehend criminals. Essentially, RT is conveying to the reader that as long as they are not engaged in wrongdoing, there should be no cause for alarm. Moreover, he reassures the reader that illicit use of scanning procedures is an uncommon occurrence, citing an environment owner who states, “If we saw scanning like this being done, we would throw them out”. This logical argument is designed to ease the reader’s anxieties about the potential misuse of data collection systems.

Both authors employ ethos in their persuasive efforts, with Sirota demonstrating a stronger use of this rhetorical appeal. One factor contributing to the weakness of the first article is the credibility of its sources. In the RT article, the sources often appear to originate from heavily biased sources, such as the large corporations themselves. For instance, the person quoted as stating, “I fear that the proposed legislation would essentially create a safe haven in the Commonwealth for certain types of criminals, it would reduce the safety of our officers, and it could ultimately result in lives lost,” is not a law enforcement officer, attorney, or legislator; rather, it is Brian Shockley, the vice president of marketing at Vigilant, the corporate parent of Digital Recognition. It is problematic for the reader to be frightened into relinquishing their privacy by a corporation that stands to profit from it.

In contrast, Sirota cites sources with high credibility, or extrinsic ethos, throughout his article. He quotes ACLU attorney Catherine Crump, who states: “‘One could argue that the privacy implications of a private individual taking a picture of a public place are significantly different from a company collecting millions of license plate images…there may be a justification for regulation.” Sirota presents a relatable source representing the public’s interests from a legal perspective, rather than one aligned with a corporation seeking to gain from the situation.

The balance between corporate and national security interests on one hand, and individual privacy and rights on the other, continues to be a significant subject in our increasingly tech-driven society. The authors of the articles examined in this discussion skillfully employed ethos, pathos, and logos to build their cases regarding the use of private license plate scanners. Numerous journalists and news outlets have also contributed their perspectives on this matter, aiming to educate the public about both sides of the argument. While journalists and writers may present a particular viewpoint, it ultimately falls upon the reader to carefully contemplate all the ramifications of the debate.

Links

https://h2o.ai/wiki/big-data/

https://www.rt.com/usa/license-scanners-private-database-046/

https://inthesetimes.com/article/do-companies-have-a-right-to-track-you

Soviet Ideology and Its Influence

First published 2022

The Soviet Union, a significant proponent of socialism, displayed the strengths and weaknesses of this ideological approach to governance and societal structuring. Socialist nations, taking their cue from the USSR, have often showcased progressive policies that extend to the provision of rights for minorities, access to abortion, well-structured public health care systems, and innovative educational reforms. The root of such policies lies in the state’s command over the country’s economy, including its output and assets. This control allows the government to reallocate resources in such a way that even the underprivileged sections of society, especially the poor, are provided for. To many, growing up in such an environment seems attractive as it appears to guarantee a life where necessities are not a luxury but a right.

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However, the shimmering facade of socialist utopia is tarnished by the many tales of oppression that have emanated from nations under socialist rule. For those living within such regimes, freedoms, often taken for granted in democracies, become elusive dreams. In socialist systems, political freedom and the establishment of stable institutions often become collateral damage in the state’s quest for control. The ideology, though theoretically about uplifting the masses, in practice has too often favoured those at the top echelons of power while leaving the common populace impoverished and suppressed. It is a paradox of socialism – while it promises to cater to the needy, it often ends up depriving many of their basic rights, including freedom of expression.

The survival of socialist regimes can be attributed, in large part, to the mastery of propaganda by their leaders. The Soviet Union’s propagandist strategies, especially under Josef Stalin, were a mix of artistry and manipulation. Stalin, with a keen understanding of the power of imagery, employed documentary photographs, albeit heavily retouched, to craft a persona that would be etched into the minds of his subjects. By smoothing out his blemishes and doctoring photos, he created an omnipotent and omniscient image of himself – the single, irreplaceable leader of the Soviet people. This manipulation not only shaped public perception but also skewed reality, creating a cult of personality where the leader’s image became an “accepted” truth.

An equally compelling reflection of Soviet ideology is seen in its architecture. A nation’s beliefs and values are often immortalised in its physical structures, and the USSR was no exception. Soviet architectural designs were grandiose, drawing heavily on ornamental motifs while being structurally massive, often constructed using large amounts of concrete. With features such as arches, porticos, and columns, these buildings were not just functional structures but symbols of the Soviet’s ideological commitment to collectivism. Their size and extravagance were testimonies to the state’s emphasis on collective strength and unity.

The Soviet ideology also extended its influence into the realm of culture and the arts. In the USSR, the arts were not mere forms of entertainment or expression; they were tools that furthered the state’s agenda. The government exercised a firm grip over all forms of cultural production, ensuring they aligned with socialist values and the state’s goals. The doctrine of Socialist Realism mandated artists, writers, and filmmakers to portray the Soviet life in a positive light, emphasising the heroism of the ordinary worker and the inevitable triumph of socialism over its adversaries. This control often stifled creativity, but also birthed a unique genre of art and literature that celebrated the worker, the collective, and the state.

Moreover, the Soviet education system was deeply intertwined with its ideological tenets. Schools, from elementary to tertiary levels, became crucibles where young minds were molded to fit the socialist mold. Curriculums were centred around instilling a deep sense of patriotism, loyalty to the Communist Party, and a belief in the superiority of the socialist way of life. This emphasis on ideological indoctrination was not merely confined to subjects like history or political science; even disciplines like mathematics and natural sciences were taught with a distinctly Soviet slant, underlining the contributions of Soviet scientists and often downplaying or ignoring the achievements of the West.

Another significant realm where Soviet ideology manifested was in its international relations and foreign policy. The USSR viewed itself as the vanguard of the global socialist revolution, and its foreign policy was geared towards furthering this mission. It provided support, both overtly and covertly, to communist movements worldwide, seeking to expand its sphere of influence and counteract Western, especially American, influence. This ideological tussle laid the foundation for the Cold War, a prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet bloc and the Western allies led by the United States. Through alliances, proxies, and soft power tools like media and cultural exchange, the USSR tried to project its socialist model as the superior alternative to Western capitalism.

In conclusion, the Soviet ideology was a complex tapestry of promising principles and flawed implementations. While its commitment to providing for the masses was commendable, the means often adopted were oppressive. Through propaganda, architecture, policy, culture, education, and foreign relations, the Soviet Union left an indelible mark on the 20th century, serving both as a beacon of hope for some and a cautionary tale for others.

Links

https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/intn.html

https://www.jstor.org/stable/149682

https://europe.unc.edu/iron-curtain/history/communism-karl-marx-to-joseph-stalin/

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/004711787200400204

http://architecture-history.org/schools/SOVIET%20ARCHITECTURE.html

The Benefits and Drawbacks of an Opt-Out Organ Donation System

First published 2022

Organ transplantation is a critical medical procedure that saves countless lives each year. The shortage of available organs has prompted discussions about the feasibility and implications of implementing an opt-out organ donation system, where individuals are presumed to consent to donation unless they explicitly choose to opt out. It is necessary to consider the benefits and drawbacks of such a system, while also offering key recommendations for policymakers to take into account during its design.

One of the most compelling arguments in favour of an opt-out system is the potential for a significant boost in organ availability. This shift from an opt-in to an opt-out approach could potentially reduce waiting times for transplant recipients and save lives. By shifting from opt-in to opt-out, more individuals are considered potential donors, potentially decreasing wait times for transplants and improving survival chances. This could lead to a notable increase in available organs.

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Opt-out systems have the potential to better align post-mortem organ donation (PMOD) outcomes with people’s preferences while alive, thereby better aligning post-mortem organ donation outcomes with individuals’ pre-death preferences. Such alignment is essential for ensuring that individuals’ wishes are respected even after their passing. This alignment ensures that a person’s wishes are honoured after their passing.

The legal organ shortage fuels illicit organ trafficking. By increasing the legal supply of organs, an opt-out system could potentially curb the illegal organ trade, addressing a major ethical concern and reducing the exploitation of vulnerable individuals. An opt-out model could therefore weaken the incentive for unlawful trade, addressing an ethical issue and safeguarding vulnerable populations.

The introduction of an opt-out system would necessitate rigorous public awareness campaigns that educate people about the benefits of organ donation. Implementing an opt-out system through robust public awareness campaigns would therefore educate people about organ donation, dispel misconceptions, and encourage informed decisions.

However, a significant drawback is the potential infringement upon individual autonomy. Presumed consent could disregard cultural, religious, or personal reasons for not wanting to donate. Such a potential erosion of individual autonomy is a notable drawback. By disregarding personal, cultural, or religious reasons for withholding consent, presumed consent potentially raises ethical questions about bodily autonomy. Furthermore, even with presumed consent, family members can object to donation after a person’s death, disregarding the presumed wishes of the deceased. The ethical implications of presumed consent therefore require careful consideration. Balancing state involvement in organ procurement with individual rights presents a complex challenge.

Another drawback is that cultural and religious diversity influences attitudes towards organ donation. An opt-out system might clash with certain beliefs, potentially leading to resistance and undermining its intended benefits.

Core recommendations for policymakers shaping opt-out systems are as follows: First, decisions about the system’s scope (e.g., applicable organs and tissues) should align with the considerations that initially motivated the preference for opt-out. These considerations likely involve enhancing organ availability and harmonizing post-mortem donation with pre-death preferences. Second, these aims may sometimes appear contradictory because respecting personal post-mortem organ donation preferences can limit organ utilization. However, opt-out systems aligned with public views typically enhance organ availability. Such alignment positively influences public sentiment towards organ donation systems, thus building trust and reducing opting-out tendencies. Finally, public sentiments on organ donation can’t be presumed. Consequently, those entrusted with developing and implementing opt-out systems should rely on reliable evidence of public attitudes and ensure unbiased, robust consultation processes.

To conclude, as the global organ shortage crisis persists, the potential of an opt-out organ donation system to address this issue cannot be ignored. While it presents several benefits, such as increased organ availability and alignment with individual preferences, policymakers must also navigate complex ethical, cultural, and autonomy-related concerns. By incorporating comprehensive public education, respect for diverse beliefs, and evidence-based decision-making, an opt-out system could offer a balanced approach to enhancing organ transplantation while upholding individual rights and values.

Links

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8128443/

Opt-out systems of organ donation

Turing’s Vision: Navigating the Landscape of Ethical and Safe AI

First published 2022; revised 2023

In the dawn of the artificial intelligence era, there is an imperative need to navigate the complexities of AI ethics and safety. Ensuring that AI systems are both safe and ethically sound is no longer just a theoretical concern but a pressing practical issue that affects the global threads of industry, governance, and society at large. Drawing insights from Leslie, D. (2019) in “Understanding artificial intelligence ethics and safety: A guide for the responsible design and implementation of AI systems in the public sector”, published by The Alan Turing Institute, this essay explores the varied dimensions of AI’s responsible design and implementation.

The Alan Turing Institute forges its position as an aspirational, world-leading hub that examines the technical intricacies that underpin safe, ethical, and trustworthy AI. Committed to fostering responsible innovation and pioneering research breakthroughs, the Institute aims to go beyond mere theoretical discourses. It envisions a future where AI not only advances in capabilities but also upholds the core values of transparency, fairness, robustness, and human-centered design. Such an ambition necessitates a commitment to advancing AI transparency, ensuring the fairness of algorithmic systems, forging robust systems resilient against external threats, and cultivating AI-human collaborations that maintain human control.

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However, the quest to realise this vision is not an isolated endeavour. It requires broad, interdisciplinary collaborations, connecting the dots between technical experts, industry leaders, policy architects, and the public. Aligning with the UK government’s Industrial Strategy and meeting the burgeoning global demand for informed guidance in AI ethics, the Institute’s strategy serves as a blueprint for those committed to the responsible growth of AI. However, it’s essential to remember that the responsible evolution of AI is not just about mastering the technology but understanding its implications for the broader context of our society.

The dawn of the information age has been marked by an extraordinary convergence of factors: the expansive availability of big data, the unparalleled speed and reach of cloud computing platforms, and the maturation of intricate machine learning algorithms. This synergy has propelled us into an era of unmatched human potential, characterised by a digitally interwoven world where the power of AI stands as a beacon of societal improvement.

Already, we witness the profound impact of AI across various sectors. Essential social domains such as healthcare, education, transportation, food supply, energy, and environmental management have all been beneficiaries of AI-driven innovations. These accomplishments, however significant they may appear now, are perhaps only the tip of the iceberg. AI’s very nature, its inherent capability to evolve and refine itself with increased access to data and surging computing power, guarantees its continuous ascent in efficacy and utility. As we navigate further into the information age, it’s conceivable that AI will soon stand at the forefront, guiding the progression of critical public interests and shaping the contours of sustainable human development.

Such a vision, where AI aids humanity in addressing its most pressing challenges, is undeniably exhilarating. Yet, like any frontier technology that’s rapidly evolving, AI’s journey is fraught with pitfalls. A steep learning trajectory ensures that errors, misjudgments, and unintended consequences are not just possible but inevitable. AI, despite its immense promise, is not immune to these challenges.

Addressing these challenges is not a mere recommendation but a necessity. It is imperative to prioritise AI ethics and safety to ensure its responsible evolution and to maximise its public benefit. This means an in-depth integration of social and ethical considerations into every facet of AI deployment. It calls for a harmonised effort, requiring data scientists, product managers, data engineers, domain experts, and delivery managers to work in unison. Their collective goal? To align AI’s development with ethical values and principles that not only prevent harm but actively enhance the well-being of communities that come under its influence.

The emergence of the field of AI ethics is a testament to this necessity. Born out of a growing recognition of the potential individual and societal harms stemming from AI’s misuse, poor design, or unforeseen repercussions, AI ethics seeks to provide a compass by which we navigate the AI-driven future responsibly.

Understanding the evolution of AI and its implications requires us to first recognise the genesis of AI ethics. The eminent cognitive scientist and AI trailblazer, Marvin Minsky, once described AI as the art of enabling computers to perform tasks that, when done by humans, necessitate intelligence. This fundamental definition highlights a crucial aspect of the discourse surrounding AI: humans, when undertaking tasks necessitating intelligence, are held to standards of reliability, accuracy, and sound reasoning. We expect them to justify their decisions, and to act with fairness, equity, and reasonableness in their interactions.

However, the rise and spread of AI technologies have reshaped this landscape. As AI systems take over myriad cognitive functions, they introduce a conundrum. Unlike humans, these algorithmic processes aren’t directly accountable for their actions, nor can they be held morally responsible for the outcomes they produce. Essentially, while AI systems exhibit a form of ‘smart agency’, they lack inherent moral responsibility, creating a discernible ethical void.

Addressing this void has become paramount, giving birth to a host of frameworks within AI ethics. One such framework is the FAST Track Principles, which stands for Fairness, Accountability, Sustainability, and Transparency. These principles are designed to bridge the gap between AI’s capabilities and its intrinsic moral void. To foster an environment conducive to responsible AI development, it is vital that every stakeholder, from data scientists to policy experts, familiarises themselves with the FAST Track Principles. These principles should guide actions and decisions throughout the AI project lifecycle, underscoring the idea that creating ethical AI is a collective endeavor.

Delving deeper into the principle of fairness, one must remember that while AI systems might project a veneer of neutrality, they are ultimately products of human design. Humans, with all their inherent biases and contextual limitations, play a pivotal role in AI’s creation. At any stage of an AI project, from data extraction to model building, the spectres of human error, prejudice, and misjudgment can introduce biases. Moreover, AI systems often derive their accuracy by analysing data that might encapsulate age-old societal biases and discriminations, further complicating the fairness equation.

Addressing fairness in AI is far from straightforward. There isn’t a singular, foolproof method to eliminate biases or ensure fairness. However, by adopting best practices that focus on fairness-aware design and implementation, there’s potential to create systems that yield just and equitable outcomes. One foundational approach to fairness is the principle of discriminatory non-harm. It mandates that AI innovations should not result in harm due to biased or discriminatory outcomes. This principle, while seemingly basic, serves as a cornerstone, directing the development and deployment of AI systems towards a more equitable and fair future.

The Principle of Discriminatory Non-Harm sets forth that AI system designers and users should be deeply committed to reducing biases and preventing discriminatory outputs, especially when dealing with social or demographic data. This implies a few specific obligations. First, AI systems should be built upon data that is representative, accurate, and generalisable, ensuring “Data Fairness.” Second, the systems’ design should not include any variables, features, or processes that are morally objectionable or unjustifiable – this is “Design Fairness.” The systems should also be crafted to avoid producing discriminatory effects on individuals or groups – ensuring “Outcome Fairness.” Lastly, the onus is on the users to be adequately trained to use AI systems responsibly, embodying “Implementation Fairness.”

When considering the concept of Accountability in AI, the best practices for data processing as mentioned in Principle 6 of the Data Ethics Framework come to mind. However, the ever-evolving AI landscape brings forward distinct challenges, especially in public sector accountability. Two major challenges emerge: the “accountability gap” and the multifaceted nature of AI production processes. Automated decisions, inherently, are not self-explanatory. Unlike human agents, statistical models and AI’s underlying infrastructure don’t bear moral responsibility, creating a void in accountability. Coupled with this is the intricate nature of AI project deliveries involving a myriad of stakeholders, making it a daunting task to pinpoint responsibility if an AI system’s implementation has adverse consequences.

To address these challenges, it’s imperative to adopt a comprehensive approach to accountability that encompasses both Answerability and Auditability. Answerability stresses that human creators and users of AI systems should take full responsibility for the algorithmically-driven decisions. They should be ready to provide clear, coherent, and non-technical explanations for these decisions, ensuring that every stage of the AI process is accountable. Auditability, on the other hand, focuses on how to hold these AI system designers and implementers accountable. It emphasises the demonstration of both responsible design and use practices, and the justifiability of the outcomes.

Another critical pillar is Sustainability. AI system designers and users must be continually attuned to the long-term and transformative effects their technologies might have on individuals and society at large. This proactive awareness ensures that the systems not only address the immediate needs but also consider the long-term societal impacts.

In tandem with sustainability is Safety. Besides considering the broader social ramifications of an AI system, it’s essential to address its technical sustainability and safety. Given that AI operates in an unpredictable environment, achieving technical safety becomes a challenging task. However, the importance of building a safe and reliable AI system cannot be overstated, especially when potential failures could result in harmful consequences and erode public trust. To achieve this, emphasis must be placed on the core technical objectives of accuracy, reliability, security, and robustness. This involves rigorous testing, consistent validation, and frequent reassessment of the system. Moreover, effective oversight mechanisms need to be integrated into the system’s real-world operation to ensure that it functions safely and as intended.

The intrinsic challenges of accuracy in artificial intelligence systems can be linked to the inherent complexities and unpredictability of the real world. When trying to model this chaotic reality, it’s a significant task to ensure that an AI system’s predictions or classifications are precise. Data noise, which is unavoidable, combined with the potential that a model might not capture all aspects of the underlying patterns and changes in data over time, can all contribute to these challenges.

On the other hand, the reliability of an AI system rests on its ability to consistently function in line with its intended design and purpose. This means that if a system is deemed reliable, users can trust that its operations will adhere to its set specifications, bolstering user confidence in the safety and predictability of its outcomes.

AI systems also face threats on the security front. Security is not just about safeguarding an AI system from potential external threats but also ensuring that the system’s architecture remains uncompromised and that any data or information within it remains confidential. This integrity is paramount, especially when considering the potential adversarial threats that AI systems might face.

Robustness in AI, meanwhile, centres on an AI system’s ability to function effectively even under less than ideal conditions. Whether these conditions arise from intentional adversarial actions, human errors, or misalignments in automated learning objectives, the system’s ability to maintain its integrity is a testament to its robustness.

One of the more nuanced challenges that machine learning models face is the phenomenon of concept drift. When the historical data, which informs the model’s understanding, becomes outdated or misaligned with current realities, the model’s accuracy and reliability can suffer. Therefore, staying attuned to changes in the underlying data distribution is vital. Ensuring that the technical team is aware of the latest research on detecting and managing concept drift will be crucial to the continued success of AI projects.

Another pressing concern in the realm of AI is adversarial attacks. These attacks cleverly manipulate input data, causing AI models to make grossly incorrect predictions or classifications. The subtle nature of these perturbations can lead to significant ramifications, especially in critical systems like medical imaging or autonomous vehicles. Recognising these vulnerabilities, there has been a surge in research in the domain of adversarial machine learning, aiming to safeguard AI systems from these subtle yet disruptive inputs.

Equally concerning is the threat of data poisoning, where the very data that trains an AI system is tampered with, causing the system to generate inaccurate or harmful outputs. This kind of attack can be especially sinister as it might incorporate ‘backdoors’ into the system, which when triggered, can cause malfunctions. Therefore, beyond technical solutions, it becomes imperative to source data responsibly and ensure its integrity throughout the data handling process. The emphasis should be on responsible data management practices to ensure data quality throughout the system’s lifecycle.

In the world of artificial intelligence, the term “transparency” has taken on a nuanced and specialised meaning. While the everyday usage of the term typically evokes notions of clarity, openness, and straightforwardness, in AI ethics, transparency becomes even more multifaceted. One aspect of this is the capacity for AI systems to be interpretable. That is, those interacting with an AI system should be able to decipher how and why the system made a particular decision or acted in a certain way. This kind of transparency is about shedding light on the internal workings of the often enigmatic AI mechanisms, allowing for greater understanding and trust.

Furthermore, transparency isn’t limited to merely understanding the “how” and “why” of AI decisions. It also encompasses the ethical considerations behind both the design and deployment of AI systems. When AI systems are said to be transparent, it implies that they can be justified as ethical, unbiased, trustworthy, and safety-oriented both in their creation and their outcomes. This dual focus on process and product is vital.

In developing AI, teams are tasked with several responsibilities to ensure this two-tiered transparency. First, from a process perspective, there is a need to assure all stakeholders that the entire journey of creating the AI system was ethically sound, unbiased, and instilled with measures ensuring trust and safety. This includes not just designing with these values in mind but also ensuring auditability at every stage.

Secondly, when it comes to the outcome or product of AI, there’s the obligation to make sure that any decision made by the AI system is elucidated in ways that are understandable to non-experts. The explanations shouldn’t merely regurgitate the mathematical or technical jargon but should be phrased in relatable terms, reflecting societal contexts. Furthermore, the results or behaviors of the AI should be defensible, fitting within parameters of fairness, trustworthiness, and ethical appropriateness.

In addition to these tasks, there’s a broader need for professional and institutional transparency. Every individual involved in the AI’s development and deployment should adhere to stringent standards that emphasise values like integrity, honesty, and neutrality. Their primary allegiance should be to the public’s best interests, superseding other considerations.

Moreover, throughout the AI development process, there should be an open channel for public oversight. Of course, certain information may need to remain confidential for valid reasons, like ensuring bad actors can’t exploit the system. But, by and large, the emphasis should be on openness.

Transitioning into the structural aspects of AI development, a Process-Based Governance (PBG) Framework emerges as a crucial tool. Such a framework is pivotal for integrating ethical considerations and best practices seamlessly into the actual development process. The guide might delve into specifics like the CRISP-DM, but it’s worth noting that the principles of responsible AI development can be incorporated into other workflow models, including KDD and SEMMA. Adopting such a framework helps ensure that the values underpinning ethical AI are not just theoretical but find active expression in every phase of the AI’s life cycle.

Alan Turing’s simple sketch in 1936 was nothing short of revolutionary. With just a linear tape, symbols, and a set of rules, he demystified the very essence of calculations, giving birth to the conceptual foundation of the modern computer. His Turing machine wasn’t just a solution to the enigma of effective calculations, it was the conceptual forerunner of the digital revolution we live in today. This innovative leap, stemming from a quiet room at Kings College, Cambridge, is foundational to our digital landscape.

Fast forward to our present day, and we find ourselves immersed in a world where the lines between the physical and digital blur. The seamless interplay of connected devices, sophisticated algorithms, and vast cloud computing platforms is redefining our very existence. Technologies like the Internet of Things and edge computing are not just changing the way we live and work; they’re reshaping the very fabric of our society. AI is becoming more than just a tool or a technology; it is rapidly emerging as the fulcrum upon which our future balances. The possibilities it presents, both optimistic and cautionary, are monumental. It’s essential to realise that the trajectory of AI’s impact lies in our hands. The decisions we make today will shape the society of tomorrow, and the implications of these choices weigh heavily on our collective conscience.

It’s paramount to see that artificial intelligence isn’t just about codes and algorithms. It’s about humanity, our aspirations, our values, and our shared vision for the future. In many ways, the guide on AI ethics and safety serves as a compass, echoing Turing’s ethos by emphasising that the realm of AI, at its core, remains a profoundly human domain. Every line of code, every algorithmic model, every deployment carries with it a piece of human intention, purpose, and responsibility.

In essence, understanding the ethics and safety of AI isn’t just about mitigating risks or optimising outputs. It’s about introspection and realising that behind every technological advancement lie human choices. Responsible innovation isn’t just a catchphrase; it’s a call to action. Only by staying grounded in our shared ethical values and purpose-driven intentions can we truly harness AI’s potential. Let’s not just be passive recipients of technology’s gifts. Instead, let’s actively shape its direction, ensuring that our collective digital future resonates with our shared vision of humanity’s greatest aspirations.

Links

https://www.turing.ac.uk/news/publications/understanding-artificial-intelligence-ethics-and-safety

https://www.turing.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2019-06/understanding_artificial_intelligence_ethics_and_safety.pdf

Impact of Consumerism and Materialism on Modern Society

First published 2022; revised 2023

For many years, individuals have been driven to consume excessively due to the economy’s influence on materialism. Consumerism involves using advertising to encourage people to purchase unnecessary items even when they lack funds. Materialism focuses on valuing material possessions for physical comfort rather than spiritual principles. Frequently employing deceitful advertising, consumerism deceives shoppers into believing they must possess certain products to sustain their happiness. At times, people succumb to the deceitful language and tactics of advertisements. The adverse impacts of consumerism and materialism on society include distorting the balance between desires and necessities, affecting emotions, and escalating debt. Simultaneously, these ideas can construct a small, idealised world within the consumer’s mind.

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Increased wealth leads to increased challenges. As an individual’s financial resources grow, so does their inclination to expend money on unnecessary items. DeAngelis points out that in comparison to Americans in 1957, today’s population possesses twice the number of cars per person, dines out more frequently, and enjoys various other commodities that were absent back then. Over time, Americans have discovered more avenues to splurge on non-essential items, resulting in impulsive expenditures. This inclination toward impulsive consumerism is often evident during peak holiday seasons like Black Friday. The Black Friday Death Counter reveals that between 2006 and 2014, there were 7 reported deaths and 98 injuries due to people being trampled and stampeded in pursuit of supposed ‘amazing deals’. This underscores the extent to which individuals can act recklessly when pursuing materialistic desires. Additionally, many individuals forsake their Thanksgiving gatherings to partake in this compulsive consumerism, further contributing to the phenomenon.

Some people perceive the impulsive emotions triggered by materialism as inherent to human nature, while others view them as irrational. Taylor suggests that our excessive materialistic tendencies are partially a response to internal dissatisfaction. Those struggling with depression, in particular, seek sources of joy enhancement. In accordance with societal norms, consumers rush to stores in search of items to boost their own or a loved one’s happiness. As outlined by Murray, self-doubt, particularly among those predisposed to it, seems to amplify materialistic inclinations. Presently, even young adults experience heightened depression levels, impacting their perspectives on consumerism and even propelling it. These individuals mature in an environment of diminished contentment and social awareness. Teenagers and young adults often find themselves influenced by technology and the pressure to acquire the latest market gadgets, a factor that determines their social standing and consequently affects their emotional state.

Consumerism also impacts couples’ dynamics. During occasions like Valentine’s Day, there’s a societal pressure surrounding the choice of gifts. Recently, couples have been engaging in disputes concerning the appropriate value of gifts and the level of gratitude they convey. Researchers showed that materialism has an adverse link with the quality of marriage, even when both partners share materialistic values. Marriages where both spouses hold low materialism tendencies fare better in various aspects of marital quality compared to couples where one or both partners exhibit high materialism tendencies.

Major brands exploit feelings of insecurity to manipulate consumers. Within the realm of media, it’s more effortless to evoke negative emotions than positive ones. Makeup advertisements, for instance, subtly imply that their products are the sole path to experiencing beauty. The International Journal of Dermatology features an assertion that regular cosmetic use can serve essential psychological purposes by fostering social and psychological well-being. Advertisements induce a common cycle in individuals. Initially, the ad’s subject feels discontent due to something missing in their life. The advertised product is then showcased with content users appearing joyful and astonished. This triggers an “aha” moment for the subject who believes the product holds the key to their happiness. The ad concludes with an overly optimistic resolution and information on purchasing the product. When viewers attempt to replicate this scenario in reality, they inadvertently set themselves up for disappointment and frustration. Advertisements generate false expectations for the viewer although brands prioritise sales over such concerns.

Consumerism also impacts couples’ relationships. During occasions like Valentine’s Day, there’s a societal pressure regarding gift selection. Couples often experience disagreements concerning the appropriate worth of gifts and the extent of gratitude expressed. Studies show that materialism has an adverse correlation with the quality of marriage, even when both partners share materialistic viewpoints. Marriages where both spouses exhibit low materialism tendencies demonstrate superior attributes of marital quality compared to couples where one or both partners display high materialism tendencies.

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Desires unconsciously transform into necessities when impulsive shopping tendencies come into play. According to Karen Thomas (a former debtor), the notion is, “I can purchase it because I possess the means.” Furthermore, consumerism contributes to the escalating credit card debt in the United States. Thomas, along with her spouse, recalls how she was continuously “swiping and swiping away.” During her early college years, she thoughtlessly signed up for credit cards at university booths, remaining unconcerned about bills or balances. Thomas’s compulsive behavior eventually caught up with her, leading to her first card being declined. As she recounts, her happiness was initially at a 7 out of 10, soaring to cloud nine when she acquired the cards. However, the declined cards instantly dropped her happiness to a 2. This abrupt shift left her feeling disheartened, attributing the decline in her happiness to her impulsive consumerism. This pattern of feeling compelled to buy more due to materialistic pressures is widespread. Our society heavily relies on advertisements, seamlessly integrating them into daily routines. Advertisements are designed to sway viewers into making purchases or investments. Thomas has now discovered solace in couponing, seeking the best deals for both wants and needs. Despite her previous credit issues, she recognizes her situation is improving and she underscores the inevitability of contributing taxes to the economy. This realisation has prompted her to embrace couponing. When questioned about her stance on materialism and whether she has succumbed to it, she replied that she isn’t materialistic at all and emphasised that couponing brings her more comfort than a brand-new purse.

Conversely, materialism can extend beyond its immediate impact. De Angelis suggests that while some materialists navigate life with minimal distress, the broader costs associated with consumerism raise concerns, as others point out. Materialism possesses the potential to yield positive outcomes as individuals pursue their own version of an ideal world. A notable example is the California Gold Rush, during which individuals from across the United States flocked to California, seeking not only to strike gold but also to secure a better life, coinciding with the flourishing old Hollywood era and abundant opportunities. People often seek anything that could provide them with happiness, commonly linking the idea of happiness to success. Within our society, a prevailing belief is that accumulating more wealth corresponds to greater success, which in turn results in increased happiness.

Recently, there’s been a growing recognition of this issue. Amidst the potential confusion that media can create, there exists a ray of hope in the form of strategies for distinguishing between wants and needs. Youtuber Stacey Flowers champions the concept of budgeting intelligently and making wise purchasing decisions. She adopts Dave Ramsey’s Financial Peace University program to strategically manage her finances throughout the year. This program employs a 7-step framework to guide the process of debt repayment. Her video content encompasses aspects like bullet journaling, organisation, and vlogs focused on enhancing productivity. Her objective centers on achieving complete freedom from debt and relying solely on cash. This involves clearing her substantial debt of $208,453.27. She emphasises to her subscribers that accomplishing debt elimination within a year is unlikely, stating that she’s embarked on this journey to offer an authentic depiction of what it entails.

In summary, consumerism and materialism are commonly regarded as inherent human instincts that are challenging to control, simultaneously representing a significant societal concern. While instances of purchasing unnecessary items will inevitably arise, there’s an underlying comprehension of consumer desires and the motivations behind their purchases. However, when one becomes a compulsive consumer, the distinction between ‘want’ and ‘need’ becomes indistinct, leading individuals to perceive an array of joy-sparking items as ‘necessary’. This concept of an idealised world influences thought patterns.

Driven by a strong desire for happiness and comfort, individuals often resort to excessive spending and shopping in an attempt to alleviate the emptiness causing their discontent. In moments of difficulty, it’s common to seek solace in the one thing that brings joy—often: that is, spending money on yourself. However, it’s crucial to avoid yielding to impulsive spending especially when other obligations are at play. People often entertain the idea that they can accumulate everything they desire, crafting a personal realm of happiness. Yet this desire for perfection is innately human, aspiring to embody the ideal self while indulging in unchecked spending. However, it is essential to pause and reflect on the potential impact of material possessions before making purchases.

Links

https://www.retaildive.com/spons/understanding-todays-consumer-and-increasing-their-spend-in-2023/639680/

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221809251_Materialism_Status_Consumption_and_Consumer_Independence

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCHh55er922iaPe4P4Y-NR5g

https://www.apa.org/monitor/jun04/discontents

https://treyttaylor.medium.com/the-greater-good-dba03430f7ce

The Effects of Incarceration in the United States

First published 2022

The incarceration of mass individuals can be typified as damaging to the livelihood of each offender, but also the community of which criminals are born in, occasionally leading to racial doctrines and an inferior status being placed upon societies or individuals. Within the judicial system of the United States, the basic aim of incarceration is to punish offenders to an extent where respect is shown to other personal rights along with a sense of normality after release, thus creating a constructive relationship between the offender and society.

One of the chief reasons for why incarceration is portrayed as ‘destructive’ is due to the heavy reliance on public funding that aids the notion of imprisonment, which is deemed as a financial burden to the US government.  A new study investigating the full economic toll of incarceration within the United States suggests that over $1 trillion is being disbursed by the administration to keep with the concept of mass imprisonment. Though, it has been concluded that over half of this income is from the burden of family welfares that have been placed on families, children, and the communities of the people who have been locked up or convicted.

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The United States is the largest nation in the world when it arrives to the terms of jail and imprisonment, with just less than 5% of the world’s population, but nearly 25% of its criminals within prison. A further 7 million of Americans are also either placed on parole or probation. It has further been specified that the process of operating federal state prisons generally totals to a sum of just over $80 billion, including the running of local jails. With the high expenses of funding for mass incarceration, it has been denoted that the main victim are not the convicts, but the children themselves who often pay the bigger costs. Children are four to five times more likely to face a criminal offence than their peers which will result in them being imprisoned. In addition, many children are also often open to long term behavioural and emotional challenges with the common effects of a guardian being incarcerated, ranging from ‘self-blame to depression’.

It has also been established that the children of incarcerated individuals have an increased chance of becoming homeless or fronting financial instability which will primarily lead to homelessness. Moreover, 10% of children who have incarcerated parents are unable or are disadvantaged to finish high school or attend college, thus meaning that the majority of teenagers often sacrifice their education in place of an occupation for the labour work force in order to make up for the mainstream of lost family revenue. Altogether, the financial costs involving the children of the incarcerated and the effects that have been formed, overall have consumed over $185 billion. So, the significant figures which are required to fit with the practice of incarceration, and the shadowing effects it has on others such as children and close relatives wholly imply the concept of incarceration is financially consequential. In addition, the billions of dollars consumed to preserve criminals can instead, be efficiently utilised to fund for rehabilitative programs and educational agendas which have a much larger scale of reforming individuals who have broken the law.

A further element that implies the notion of incarceration is destructive to personal welfare is the concept of discrimination and police brutality is active within prisons, thus delivering a negative outcome for the convicts of certain ethnic groups. Many groups that face such cruelty within prison institutions can be argued to have been partially stripped of their human rights. It has also been well recognised, for a large period, that many individuals who possess African American heritage are assigned to prisons which prominently have a vast number of white male convicts: In state prisons, African Americans are incarcerated at 5.1 times the rate of white people.

Evidence delivered by the New York Times suggests that the ethnic minorities, who were commonly transferred to the northern district of New York, were immediately subject to discrimination and racial abuse. Undoubtedly, not enough injustice or attention has been paid towards ethnic prejudice as many of the cases propose racial bias comes in the form of punishment for trivial law contravention. Moreover, a study conducted by the New York Times suggested of “tens of thousands of punitive cases against inmates in 2015, hundreds of pages of internal reports and three years of parole decisions” had been created determining that discrimination had come into practice between inmates and prison officers within New York prisons.

Analysis commonly found that in most prisons, “blacks and Latinos” were often disciplined at higher rates than white individuals. In state prisons such as, Michigan, New Jersey and Mississippi, each state hold a prison population of over 50% of African Americans with individuals of black heritage being incarcerated at “5.1 times the rate of white people”. This figure indicates that there is undoubtedly a sense of discrimination between white officers who are in command of controlling prisons and the inmates who are commonly of black inheritance, signifying prisons are a dark place for ethnic groups such as African Americans and Latinos who frequently face discrimination and abuse. Thus, illustrating that the idea of incarceration is wholly, a negative concept, specifically for different ethnic groups, as it does not reform inmates, but instead intimidates their personal outlook, occasionally resulting with the individual leading a destructive life style once unconfined, which will most absolutely increase the chances of the same ex-convict being incarcerated once again.

Links

http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/522360?journalCode=cj

https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-high-price-of-americas-incarceration-80-billion/

http://uk.businessinsider.com/study-finds-huge-racial-disparity-in-americas-prisons-2016-6/#incarceration-ratio-for-blacks-versus-whites-by-state-1

https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/06/opinion/the-stain-of-racism-in-new-yorks-prisons.htmlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/03/nyregion/new-york-state-prisons-inmates-racial-bias.html