The Impact of Gender Inequality on Japan’s Economic Development

First published 2023

Japan, a recognised global technological and economic leader, faces a concerning economic narrative steeped in gender disparities. These disparities not only underscore the underuse of the female workforce but also extend to market innovation, corporate governance, and societal evolution. By marginalising a significant portion of its skilled population, Japan is inadvertently limiting its potential for robust and diverse economic growth.

Historically, Japan’s trajectory reveals a pattern of diminished female labour participation, especially when benchmarked against its OECD counterparts. Notably, during the late 20th century, while countries like the U.S. and UK witnessed amplified female engagement in the workforce, Japan lagged behind. Although recent years have seen a moderate upturn in female participation, the impediments to a balanced gender representation remain entrenched.

Contact

One prominent barrier is direct discrimination. Many Japanese companies, influenced by ingrained societal norms, have shown a proclivity to favour men for senior roles, operating under the misguided belief that women might prioritise familial commitments over professional duties. Consequently, Japan’s percentage of women in managerial roles pales in comparison to other developed nations. Furthermore, cultural norms which position women primarily as caregivers have led to indirect challenges, particularly in metropolitan areas like Tokyo. Here, working mothers often confront difficulties in accessing childcare, prompting some to leave their jobs.

This gender discrepancy has critical implications for Japan’s economic development. It results in a discernible loss of human capital, thereby impeding the optimal utilisation of the nation’s talent pool. This is manifested not only in workforce figures but also in missed chances for creativity, innovation, and holistic perspectives. Moreover, with Japan grappling with demographic challenges like plummeting birth rates and an aging populace, there’s an impending labour supply crisis. Research by the Recruit Works Institute indicates a potential shortage of 3.41 million workers by 2030, escalating to over 11 million by 2040. Amidst such a backdrop, integrating a larger segment of the female populace into the labour market could prove vital.

Furthermore, gender diversity in decision-making often results in a broad spectrum of products and services. Without adequate representation of women in influential roles, Japan risks sidelining innovations that cater to diverse segments of the population. Evidence also suggests that companies with varied leadership often surpass their homogeneous counterparts in performance. Thus, Japan’s glaring gender gap, particularly in senior corporate roles, could signify missed economic opportunities.

However, initiatives aimed at rectifying these disparities, such as ‘Womenomics’ championed by Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, have yielded only incremental results. More recently, Prime Minister Fumio Kishida has recognised the need to bolster Japan’s birth rate and announced ambitious targets to raise the proportion of female executives in Tokyo stock exchange-listed firms to 30% or more by 2030. Yet, Japan has set and missed similar goals in the past, largely due to pervasive gender norms rooted deeply in the societal fabric.

Historical influences like Confucianism have shaped Japan’s patriarchal hierarchies, positioning men as breadwinners and heads of families, while women are relegated to caregiving roles. These constructs are imbibed from a young age, with educational settings reinforcing gendered behavioural patterns. Such norms invariably affect workplace dynamics, leading to hiring practices and organisational behaviour that echo these traditional gender roles.

Furthermore, Japan’s workplace expectations, characterised by long hours and unwavering commitment to the company, make it difficult for women to ascend to leadership positions. Adding to this is the societal expectation that they shoulder a disproportionate share of domestic responsibilities. Despite offering generous paternity leave provisions, only a mere 14% of Japanese men availed of this benefit in 2021. The resultant unequal division of household labour often results in women either missing out on promotions, settling for lower-paying roles, or reconsidering their family planning decisions.

Past governmental measures aimed at rectifying gender imbalances, whether by introducing leadership quotas, expanding childcare provisions, or enhancing parental leave benefits, have often missed their mark. Recent undertakings have even reportedly exacerbated gender inequality and, in some instances, pushed women into poverty.

Drawing parallels with Singapore’s recent gender equality review could offer Japan insights. A comprehensive review encompassing all life stages and societal segments, combined with feedback from the younger generation, could pave the way for meaningful reforms. Research indicates a growing disillusionment among younger Japanese with traditional gender roles, prompting them to explore alternative lifestyles outside the traditional power structures.

In summary, gender inequality has left an indelible mark on Japan’s economic narrative. Addressing these disparities requires more than just policy modifications; it necessitates a paradigm shift in societal mindsets. Championing gender equality might just be the catalyst Japan needs to achieve unparalleled economic success.

Links

https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/06/28/japans-stubborn-gender-inequality-problem/

https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2019/03/gender-equality-in-japan-yamaguchi

https://www.oecd.org/japan/Gender2017-JPN-en.pdf

https://www.jef.or.jp/journal/pdf/171th_cover06.pdf

https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/ip_innovation_economics/gender_innovation_gap/gender-equality-japan.html

Chicana Artists and the Political Use of the Virgin of Guadalupe

First published 2023

The interplay between art and society has long exemplified the cultural, political, and emotional climate of any given era. It holds a mirror to prevailing sentiments, crystallising the ephemeral into concrete representations that can be discussed, dissected, and deeply felt. In the diverse and rich landscape of art movements, few are as closely intertwined with cultural identity and political advocacy as the Chicano art movement of the mid-20th century. At the centre of this movement is a sub-narrative of particular significance: the powerful incorporation of the figure of the Virgin of Guadalupe by Chicana artists. Their nuanced portrayals transcend mere religious imagery; they delve into socio-political commentary, feminist critique, and the very essence of Mexican American identity. To fully grasp the profundity of their artistic choices, it’s crucial to trace the historical journey of the Virgin of Guadalupe, her place within the Mexican and Mexican American consciousness, and how Chicana artists have reimagined her over the decades.

Contact

The interplay between art and society has always acted as a pulsating heartbeat, capturing the cultural, political, and emotional nuances of its time. Whether it’s the haunting reflections of the Renaissance following the Black Death, the vibrant tales of heroism painted in the Romantic period, or the stark abstraction of modernism in a rapidly changing world, art has consistently been a testament to the spirit of the era. But within this vast mosaic of artistic expression, the Chicano art movement, blossoming in the turbulent era of the 1960s and ’70s, stands out. This movement, deeply rooted in the experiences of Mexican Americans, became a revolutionary voice against discrimination, inequality, and cultural erasure. Central to this powerful outcry is an artistic motif that repeatedly finds its way into murals, paintings, and prints: the iconic figure of the Virgin of Guadalupe. The way Chicana artists, such as Yolanda Lopez and Ester Hernández, wove the image of this revered figure into their work was not just an affirmation of cultural identity, but a bold political statement. Through their art, the Virgin was transformed from a distant religious symbol into a dynamic emblem of resistance, feminism, and the rich tapestry of Mexican American heritage. To explore the profound reimagining of the Virgin of Guadalupe by these artists is to embark on a journey that traverses faith, history, and the passionate call for justice and recognition.

Historically, the Virgin of Guadalupe has occupied a profound space within the Mexican and Mexican American consciousness, acting as a bridge between indigenous roots and contemporary struggles. Revered as the protector of marginalised individuals, her origin story is steeped in both mysticism and cultural resonance. As the dark-skinned patroness of Mexico, her miraculous appearance to Juan Diego, an Indigenous man, on the hill of Tepeyac in 1531, wasn’t just a religious event; it was a powerful affirmation of indigenous identity in the face of Spanish colonisation. Speaking Nahuatl, the predominant language of the indigenous Aztecs, she became an embodiment of cultural continuity amidst rapid change and disruption. Her symbolic presence transcended mere spiritual reverence, intertwining with the political fabric of the nation. During Mexico’s tumultuous fights for independence in the 19th century, the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe was brandished by insurgents like Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla as a rallying cry against Spanish dominion. The revered image found resonance once again during the battles of the Mexican civil war, where fighters, driven by visions of a free and sovereign Mexico, bore her emblem on their banners, seeing in her not just a religious figure, but a symbol of hope, resilience, and the indomitable spirit of the Mexican people.

In the context of the United States, the Virgin of Guadalupe was wielded as an emblematic figure during the 1960s strikes led by Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta against grape-growing companies. The use of her image by Chicano Movement activists was not merely symbolic; it projected their struggle for economic and racial justice as a spiritual endeavour, resonating deeply with national audiences.

As the decades progressed, Chicana artists began to explore and reinterpret the Virgin of Guadalupe from feminist and gendered perspectives. Yolanda Lopez, in her iconic 1978 piece, “Portrait of the Artist as the Virgin of Guadalupe,” reframed the Virgin’s image as a powerful, forward-moving mestiza woman, juxtaposing traditional representations with modern sensibilities. Similarly, Ester Hernández’s artwork positioned Guadalupe as a karate champion, a nod to the formidable women at the forefront of the civil rights movement.

The intersection of art, spirituality, and politics further evolved as Chicana artists began focusing on pressing issues such as immigration. Through art, they shed light on the stories and struggles of those journeying through the treacherous desert landscapes between Mexico and the U.S. Liliana Wilson’s 1987 artwork “El Color de la Esperanza” poignantly captures the essence of hope, resilience, and vulnerability of these migrants, with Guadalupe as their guardian.

In a more satirical take, Ester Hernández’s 2010 print deftly combined biting commentary with cultural symbolism. Fashioning a “Wanted” poster featuring the Virgin of Guadalupe, Hernández’s artwork is a sharp rebuke to the draconian immigration policies of the time. The poster, painted with the characteristic sepia tones of aged paper, ironically accuses the Virgin of “providing limitless aid and comfort” to migrants. Beyond just the textual message, the “Wanted” portrayal is rife with implications. By presenting Guadalupe, a figure revered by many in the Mexican community, as a “criminal,” Hernández throws into stark relief the absurdity of policies that criminalise acts of humanitarian aid. Hernández’s piece serves as a potent reminder of the juxtaposition between how society often perceives marginalised communities and their deep-rooted traditions and values that see humanity and compassion as paramount virtues.

Moreover, embracing the Virgin of Guadalupe’s identity as a hybrid figure, many Chicana artists and writers have sought to redefine the people of the borderlands. This dual identity, encompassing both the ancient Aztec goddess Tonantzin and the Virgin, symbolises a reclaiming of mixed-race identities, where religious symbols are reshaped to echo diverse experiences and values.

These reimagined portrayals and reinterpretations of the Virgin of Guadalupe by Chicana artists underscore a larger narrative of resistance, identity, and transformation. For these artists, and the communities they represent, Guadalupe is not just a religious figure but an embodiment of a new, mestizo sensibility—a bridge that reconciles differences and advocates for those marginalised by systemic injustices. Through their art, these Chicana artists ensure that the political, social, and cultural messages of the Virgin of Guadalupe resonate powerfully, echoing both historical significance and contemporary relevance.

Links

https://americanart.si.edu/exhibitions/chicano-graphics

https://academic.oup.com/nyu-press-scholarship-online/book/23591/chapter-abstract/184757217

The Chicano Art Movement, 1960’s – present

Madonna and the Power of Feminine Expression in Pop Music

First published 2023

For centuries, a majority of public spheres were predominantly reserved for men. Activities outside the realms of childbirth and homecare were primarily considered male domains. Music genres like opera and jazz, were no exception and remained largely under male dominance (McClary, 2002). However, throughout history, several women emerged who disrupted these conventional norms, offering new paradigms in which femininity and music could coexist. Among the many, the most iconic and influential is Madonna, the undisputed “Queen of Pop.” Beyond her roles as a singer, she is an accomplished actress and songwriter (McClary, 2002). Although not the first woman in the music industry, Madonna carved out an unprecedented space, intertwining her brand of music with femininity and sexuality. These dual themes, brimming with elements of love and desire, sometimes become indistinguishable in her works (Hesmondhalgh, 2013). Notably, this audacious expression was not without challenges, as women in music often face heightened vulnerability to sexual abuse and assault, being seen as enablers of male desire (McClary, 2002). Yet, Madonna’s tenacity in blending sexuality and femininity into her artistry has solidified her status as one of the most renowned artists of contemporary times.

Contact

Madonna’s portfolio is saturated with music that melds themes of love and sexual allure. Her fearless embrace of her sexuality, combined with a raw exposition of her deepest sentiments, is a hallmark of her brand. Through her songs, she not only shares her personal narrative but also takes a stance against societal norms and expectations imposed upon women (McClary, 2002). By positioning herself as a symbol of eroticism, she challenges, confronts, and redefines societal preconceptions of femininity.

Take “True Blue” as an illustration. While it audibly narrates profound feelings of love, the visual narrative tells a more complex story. Through fashion and styling reminiscent of Marilyn Monroe, Madonna touches on the paradoxical nature of female celebrity: the simultaneous idolisation and victimisation of women (McClary, 2002). It seems that, by portraying herself as an object of male desire, Madonna attempts to shatter deeply entrenched societal expectations of women — expectations that place them on pedestals of erotic fantasy yet simultaneously reprimand them for not fitting traditional molds.

Another poignant representation is “Live to Tell.” This song confronts the commercial exploitation of female artists. Beyond its overt nods to Marilyn Monroe, the lyrics delve into the oppressive nature of a male-driven world (McClary, 2002). Yet, amidst this bleak setting, the song’s dynamic rhythm signifies a world in flux, with women gradually breaking free from restrictive stereotypes (McClary, 2002). This change is subtly hinted at in the instrumental, where a transition between the “male” D minor and the “female” F major calls for a balance between male and female forces in artistic expressions.

“Like a Prayer” further solidifies Madonna’s reputation as a master of nuanced storytelling. In this piece, the sacrosanct bond between love and sexuality is celebrated, a sentiment amplified by the setting of a church in its accompanying video. Madonna’s depiction of sexuality as divine, stemming from pure love, directly challenges the widespread notion that popular music merely commodifies and objectifies sex (Hesmondhalgh, 2013).

In the annals of music history, Madonna exemplifies the intricate links between sexuality and femininity in pop music. While her upbeat melodies invite listeners to dance, the underlying messages advocate for a seismic shift in societal attitudes towards women. By marrying love and sexuality in her songs and videos, Madonna pushes society to evolve beyond stereotyping and victimising women, promoting a world where femininity is celebrated in all its multifaceted glory.

Links

The Division of Labour and Power Relationships Between Couples

First published 2021

The view that power relationships and the division of labour are more equal is known as the ‘march of progress view’. Willmott and Young are two sociologists who believe that the conjugal roles in families have become more equal. They argue that there has been a rise in the symmetrical family and that this family type is based upon a move towards equality between couples in terms of domestic duties. For example, Willmott and Young found that men are helping more with domestic duties, that they are taking a greater part in childcare and that couples increasingly spend their leisure time together.

Contact

However, Feminists reject this march of progress view. For example, Oakley found that just because men are helping more, it doesn’t prove symmetry. She uses time studies to back this up. In her studies of housewives she found that only 25% of men had a high level of participation in childcare and only 15% in housework. Boulton’s research backs this up where she found the figure to be 20% of men who had a high level of participation in child care. Warde and Hetherington argue that sex typing of domestic tasks still exists with the female being the most likely to have been the last person to do the dishes and men being the last person to have washed the car.

Others have criticised Oakley’s research as she only focussed on women who were housewives. It is far more common that both partners have to participate in paid employment and this could have an impact upon the division of labour and power relationships within the family. For example, Gershunny argues that women working full-time is leading to a more equal division of labour. To back this up, Sullivan’s research demonstrated a similar trend with women doing less housework and men contributing more. Kan’s research demonstrates that for every £10,000 a women earns, she does two hours less per week illustrating the fact that women going out to work has led to greater equality in terms of domestic duties. This is further backed up by Ramos who found that employment has the greatest bearing on how much domestic labour a partner does. For example, where the woman is the breadwinner and the man is unemployed, he does as much domestic labour as she does. That being said, Ferri and Smith would argue that women in this situation are suffering from a dual burden as they still have to complete domestic tasks. They also found that fewer than 4% of fathers took main responsibility for providing childcare and Dex and Ward found that when it came to providing care for a sick child, that only 1% of fathers took the main responsibility. Hochschild refers to this looking after other family members as emotion work and Duncombe and Marsden take it a step further arguing that women have to perform a triple shift of paid work, emotional work and domestic labour.

In terms of power relationships within the family it is important to look at decision making and domestic violence. There is some limited evidence of a move towards more equal power relationships in terms of managing finance. For example, Pahl and Vogler found that the allowance system was most common in the past where the male would provide his wife with money. They also found a move towards pooling where both partners contribute towards household finances. That being said, Pahl and Vogler did find some evidence of inequality in terms of decision making with men more likely to have the greatest say in financial decisions. Hardill’s research backs up this notion in her findings that men usually make important decisions alone. Edgell found a similar thing in that men usually control the very important decisions within the household and argues this is due to men earning more. Smart, however found that in gay men, very little importance is attached to who controls money. This illustrates the feminist view that power relationships are based on patriarchal dominance. Weeks found a move towards co-independence where some money and decisions are used/taken jointly and others alone. This demonstrates the view that it is impossible to generalise about power relationships and decision making between couples.

Links

https://revisesociology.com/2016/07/11/liberal-radical-marxist-feminist-perspectives-society-sociology/

A Comparative Study of Cultural Responses in ‘Look We Have Coming to Dover!’ and ‘The Deliverer’

First published 2021; revised 2023

In the world of poetry, the exploration of cultures, identities, and the complex intersectionality that arises from them is a theme that has often been tackled with depth and nuance. Through their unique poetic lenses, poets frequently uncover the multiple ways individuals respond to cultures unfamiliar to them, examining the sentiments of wonder, alienation, understanding, and sometimes, resistance. In Look We Are Coming to Dover! by Daljit Nagra, and The Deliverer by Tishani Doshi, two poignant pieces that intersect at this thematic crossroad, we witness distinct yet interconnected portrayals of reactions to new and different cultural landscapes. This essay will aim to compare and contrast the manner in which these two works navigate the varied emotional and intellectual responses to other cultures, shedding light on the universal human experience of confronting and interacting with the unfamiliar.

Contact

Both Look We Have Coming to Dover! and The Deliverer explore responses to other cultures but from two different perspectives. In Look We Have Coming to Dover!, Nagra tells of the arrival of immigrants to England and of their lives filled with hard work, fears and dreams. Here, Nagra explores responses to other cultures through the voice of an immigrant whose experience in spite of the initial difficulties which indubitably coincide with migration, can still imagine a future where they can settle legally and in prosperity, evoking the notion of hope from the reader. Contrastingly, in the Deliverer, Doshi speaks on the prevalence of female infanticide in rural India and the lives of the women who help commit it. Doshi explores responses to other cultures through bringing into light the juxtaposing cultures of the world; shocking practices that are done in India contrasting with the more modernised and civilised America. The tone in both poems differs massively. In Look We Have Coming to Dover!, the poem starts with a tone of disappointment as the narrator discloses hardship and poverty. In comparison to the ‘cushy’ tourists, the narrator and his kind have very little power – economic or otherwise in a new culture. But despite this, the narrator can imagine a future where they have won their way to prosperity. However, in the Deliverer, the tone lacks emotion and could be arguably interpreted as uncaring. Or perhaps some may suggest the poet did not want to integrate their own emotions and judgements into the poem allowing the reader to form their own opinion of the culture in rural India, making it extremely effective at making the poem even more memorable for the reader.

Keeping this in mind, the reader may pause and reflect how Doshi’s exploration of cultures are indeed very stereotypical. In essence, the speaker explains how her mother visited a convent in South India where she learns how the nun would collect children who are discarded because they were ‘crippled or dark or girls’. The asyndetic list of inadequacies increased in a manner that would shock an ordinary reader but for some, it may raise the question as to why Doshi focuses on one particular country in South Asia rather than addressing crimes as such which occur around the world. This reinforces the stereotype that countries in South Asia such as India are patriarchal countries with limited feminism where women are treated poorly. This interpretation is backed by the two locations in the poem which are identified by the subheadings; first, a convent in Kerala and later the poem moves to an airport in the USA. The use of these locations is important, particularly due to the fact that they are each other’s antithesis. While airports represent global connections, technology and a mix of cultures, a ‘convent’ would in many cases be seen as the opposite of this, as a traditional location focused on individual religion, further magnifying stereotypes.

In a similar vein, though an immigrant himself, in the very first line Nagra depiction of the immigrants can be seen as stereotypical. They were ‘stowed in the sea to invade’. The inclusion of “invade” introduces the ongoing theme of words with negative connotations, but this one is particularly notable not only because it is mentioned in the very first line but also because of the direct link to hostile people entering another country. However, this is juxtaposed with the idea of being “stowed” and hidden away unnoticed, with it unlikely for people to be able to invade a country with no supplies. This could therefore be interpreted as Nagra’s criticism of immigration being detrimental or even dangerous which is hugely stereotypical and misleading. Some readers may infer that this criticism is due to the narrator becoming more whitewashed i.e. now that the narrator lives in Britain, he has grown superior frowns upon immigrants, irrespective of his own roots. This inference is substantiated with the collective noun ‘swarms’ insinuating insects which Nagra employs later in the poem to dehumanise immigrants. Alternatively, some readers may as well infer that Nagra is not criticising but instead mocking how the indigenous population regards newcomers as a threat In this respect, both poems demonstrate similar stereotypical ideas that surround cultures.

In the Deliverer, Doshi explores how women in less developed areas don’t respond to culture and its patriarchal norms. They simply follow the same pattern with no real change. – The tercets in the poem could strengthen the interpretation which mimics a pattern, evoking the notion of continuity. – For instance, at the end of the poem, it’s said that mothers ‘squeeze out life’ and then ‘trudge home to lie down for their men again’. Both quotes have monosyllabic words which make the poem feel more personal and less planned – the narrator is telling things ‘how they are’. The fact that the verb ‘squeeze’ suggests the mothers push and get rid of the baby as quickly as possible as if it were a chore and then ‘trudge’ home to go ‘lie down for their men again’ magnifies the women’s hardships and makes the reader ponder if women are baby-making machines, trapped in a continuous life of sexual reproduction. This interpretation is backed by the lack of figurative or descriptive language in the poem which contributes to a flatness of tone, expressing the bleakness of the situation. Again there is no moral judgement, as the reader is left to contemplate the inequalities of women as well as their brutal realities too. Though some could challenge that women don’t respond to sexist cultural norms with the verb ‘trudge’ which suggests unwillingness. Perhaps affected women do want to alter their lives but don’t have the means to or are discouraged to do so thereby they return to their ordinary lives. Not only is rural India portrayed in a stereotypical manner but also America. In the second part of the poem, the child is delivered to the family in America. Here it is mentioned that they are ‘American so they know about ceremony’ implying that in the western culture all birth and adoption are a serious matter. Furthermore, it is written in italics that the child’s parents ‘couldn’t stop crying’. This outburst of emotion could be seen as reasonable by some readers however others may believe that it reinforces the stereotype of Americans being overly emotional. Hence, this is how the response to culture is explored by Doshi.

Contrastingly, the narrator in Look We Have Coming to Dover! responds to the newfound culture very differently. For example, the imagery in the quote: ‘moon’s spotlight… miracle of the sun’ as well as the contrast between ‘moon’ and ‘sun’ hints that the narrator acknowledges that for immigrants at the beginning entering a new culture with dissimilar ideologies could be hard and apprehensive but slowly life becomes a bit easier due to hope; hope for citizenship, hope for an improved quality of life etc. Though some readers may perceive the ‘sun’ as alluding to the idea that those coming to the UK may need to hope for a ‘miracle’ in order to be fully accepted as part of society. Nonetheless, the narrator is not discouraged. Indeed, the wordplays such as ‘phlegmed’, the varied rhyme schemes, as well as the variation of line length, could be inferred as to how the narrator is trying to adapt to this newfound culture by striving to speak the language however it is very hard. A reader could be reminded of their own experiences with learning foreign languages, generating sympathy for the speaker. Moreover, the lines are shorter in the beginning but progress into longer lines could convey the narrator’s belief that an immigrant has to work their way up. Thus, the narrator responds to culture with his endeavour to adapt to it.

To summarise, both poets explore the responses to other cultures through a variety of methods and techniques. Despite a few minor exceptions, the two poems do differ massively when it comes to exploring responses to other cultures as one response to it positively and the other negatively.

Links

https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/daljit-nagra/look-we-have-coming-to-dover

https://www.litcharts.com/poetry/tishani-doshi/the-deliverer